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"Many a famous scientist of to-day learned his first lessons 

while gathering, indentifying and labeling his boyhood 

collections" 



THE BOY COLLECTOR'S 
HANDBOOK 



BY 

ALPHEUS HYATT VERRILL 

Author of "The Boy's Outdoor Vacation 
Book," etc. 



ILLUSTRATED WITH 
MANY PHOTOGRAPHS 
AND DIAGRAMS 



NEW YORK 

ROBERT M. McBRIDE & CO. 

1915 



^ 



^ 






Copyright, 19151 b Y 
Robert M. McBride & Co. 



Published October, 1915 

K 

NOV 22 1915 



&: 



CU414718 

"he- / • 



CONTENTS 

PART I 
NATURAL OBJECTS 

CHAPTER I 

PAGE 

WHY AND WHAT TO COLLECT 3 

General hints on collecting. What constitutes a good 
collection. Objects and aims of collecting. Interest and 
value of collections. Importance of system, classsification 
and arrangement. Labelling and cataloguing the specimens. 
Various types of collections. What not to collect. Value 
of the camera and microscope to collectors. 

CHAPTER II 

ROCKS AND MINERALS 20 

The simplest things to collect. Tools and implements 
required. Where to find minerals. How to collect the 
specimens. Ledges, cliffs, caves, etc. Meteors. Identify- 
ing and classifying the specimens. Arranging the mineral 
collection. Commercial minerals and rocks. Labelling. 

CHAPTER III 

FOSSILS 35 

Value and interest of fossils. Tools and appliances re- 
quired for collecting. Where fossils are found. Different 
kinds of fossils. Fossil puzzles. Preparing fossils. Clas- 
sifying and arranging the specimens. 

CHAPTER IV 

PLANTS AND VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 48 

Specializing. Plants, flowers and grasses. Tools and ap- 
pliances required. When and where to collect. Preparing 
the specimens. Mounting and labelling. Photographs and 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

drawings. Preservation of plants. Fungi. The Wood col- 
lection. Importance of woods. When to collect woods. 
How to prepare the specimens. Arranging the collection. 
Seeds and nuts. Leaves. Collecting and preparing leaves. 
Prints of leaves. Solar prints. Autographic prints. Photo- 
graphing leaves. Labelling and arranging. Strange foreign 
trees and plants. Casting fruits. How to make plaster 
molds. How to make wax fruits. Coloring. Making molds 
in several pieces. Making gelatine molds. 

CHAPTER V 

INSECTS 88 

Importance of insects to mankind. Number of insects. 
Haunts and habits. Seasons for collecting. Methods of col- 
lecting. Appliances necessary to collect insects. Killing in- 
sects. How to carry the specimens. Mounting and prepar- 
ing insects. Labelling. Collecting caterpillars. Preparing 
larvae. Where and how to collect insects. How to handle 
insects. Mounting butterflies and moths. Collecting at night. 
Rearing insects. Photographing insects. Collecting beetles. 
Beating for insects. Wasps, bees and other insects. Flies. 
Water insects. 

CHAPTER VI 

FRESH WATER ANIMALS 140 

What animals to collect. Preserving life. Tools and ap- 
pliances for collecting. How to collect. Where to collect. 
What you will find. Strange denizens of the water. Snails 
and shells. Pearls. 

CHAPTER VII 

MARINE ANIMALS 150 

Abundance of marine animals. Groups of marine animals. 
Zones of life. Shore animals. Tools and appliances needed. 
What and where to collect. Animals below low-water mark. 
Collecting shallow water animals. Strange things you may 
find. Deep water animals. Tools and appliances required. 
How to use the various apparatus. Collecting in the south. 
Other methods of collecting. Surface animals. Appliances 
for collecting. How to collect surface animals. Interesting 
specimens. Preserving, preparing and classifying marine 
animals. Seaweeds. Preparation of sea weeds. Labelling 
and arranging specimens. 



CONTENTS 

PART II 
THE CAMERA AND THE MICROSCOPE 

CHAPTER VIII PAGE 

PHOTOGRAPHING WILD THINGS 193 

Value of photographs. What may be photographed. 
Cameras to use. Photographing birds' nests. Photograph- 
ing birds on their nests. Photographing young birds. De- 
veloping and printing the pictures. Photographing wild 
birds. Enlarged pictures. Photographing wild animals. 
Snakes, fishes and reptiles. Photographing marine animals. 
Photographing insects. Photographing trees, flowers and 
similar objects. Importance of labelling and classifying the 
pictures. 

CHAPTER IX 

THE USE AND VALUE OF THE MICROSCOPE ... 218 
Value of the microscope to collectors. Simple microscopy. 
Instruments and appliances required. Mounting specimens 
for the microscope. Using the microscope. Specimens of 
interest. Value of the microscope for commercial and indus- 
trial purposes. Drawing through the microscope. Making 
photomicrographs. Exposures, development, etc. Semi- 
microscopic photographs. 

PART III 
COLLECTIONS OF MAN-MADE OBJECTS 

CHAPTER X 

INDIAN RELICS 235 

Importance of Indian relics. Classes of relics. Ancient 
and modern relics. Real and "fake" relics. Buckskin and 
bead work. Baskets. Ancient relics. Stone implements. 
Exchanging specimens. Pottery. Photographs of relics. 
Care in opening mounds and graves. Shell heaps. Other 
places to search for relics. Arranging and classifying the 
relics. Relics which puzzle the collector. Identifying relics. 

CHAPTER XI 

WAR, HISTORICAL, AND OTHER RELICS 257 

Interest of war and historical relics. What to collect. 
Where to collect. Incidents of collecting. Fire arms. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Weapons. Counterfeits and imitations. Exchanging. 
Handling weapons. What not to collect. Historical relics. 
What an historical relic is. Collections of buttons. Shoes. 
Door knockers and other objects. 

CHAPTER XII 

STAMPS, COINS, POSTCARDS, ETC 267 

Collecting stamps. How to start the collection. Albums 
and catalogues. Importance of perfect specimens. Dupli- 
cates. Minor differences. Dies, papers, watermarks, per- 
forations, shades, etc. Issues. Used or unused stamps. 
Surcharges. Cut stamps. Keeping the original envelopes. 
Precancelled stamps. Errors. Envelope stamps. Entire en- 
velopes. How to keep envelope stamps. Stamps in pairs. 
Sheets and plate numbers. How to mount stamps. Original 
gum. Keeping duplicates. How stamps become rare. Clas- 
sifying and arranging. How to obtain stamps. Where rare 
stamps have been found. Some personal anecdotes. Educa- 
tional value of stamps. Scenes, rulers, animals, industries, 
etc., which may be found on stamps. Coins. What coins 
to collect. Ancient and modern coins. Rarity of coins. Old 
Spanish coins. Savage currency. Cowries, wampum, etc. 
Picture post cards. Why post cards have fallen into dis- 
repute. Real interest and value in post cards. How to 
make a collection. What to strive for. 



THE ILLUSTRATIONS 

CHAPTER II 
Fig. i Interior of a limestone cave showing stalactites, etc. 

2 Crystal of sandstone 

3 Concretion 

4 Quartz crystals on dark mount 

5 Calcite to show double refraction 

CHAPTER HI 
Fig. i Fossil coral 

2 Fossil shells 

3 Fossil sea urchin 

4 Mud casts of shell 

5 Fossil reptile (restored) 

6 Fossil plants 

7 Sea lily 

8 Crinoid stem 

9 Shell mounted on pedestal 

CHAPTER IV 

Fig. i Plant gathered for pressing 

2 Plant mounted with strips of paper 

3 Plant to show flying seeds 

Plant mounted to show habits of flowering 

4 Specimen of wood in the rough 

5 Various steps in cutting wood specimen 

6 Specimens of woods finished 

7 Tree in winter and summer 

8 Solar print of leaf 

9 Photograph of leaves 

Photographs of seeds and flowers of trees 
io Lace of lace-bark tree 

11 Apple in clay, ready to cast 

12 Making the first half of mold 



THE ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. 13 First half of mold with apple 

14 Mold ready to make the second half 

15 How the "gutter" is made 

16 Section of apple 

17 Section of apple-mold 

18 Section of melon 

19 The wrong way to mold a melon 

20 A mold in several pieces 

21 Another way to mold a melon 

22 Pear in clay bed 

23 Pear ready to mold 

24 Mold made in three pieces 

25 Ready to make the gelatine mold 

CHAPTER V 
Fig. 1 Nets 

2 Hoop for net 

3 Hoop set in ferrule 

4 Cyanide bottle (section) 

5 How to fold butterfly papers 

6 Placing the specimen in the paper 

7 Butterfly folded in paper 

8 End of mounting board 

9 Mounting board with cork 

10 Breeding cage 

11 Tin cut for making oven 

12 Oven completed 

How to distinguish moths from butterflies 

13 How to hold the insect for mounting 

14 Butterfly properly pinned 

15 Position of butterfly on mounting board 

16 Where to place the first specimen 

17 How board should be ruled 

18 Insect ready to mount 
Prometheus moth and cocoon 

19 Moths showing wings open and closed 

Well mounted moth ichneumon fly emerging from chrysalis 

20 Moth trap 

21 Flower pot with netting 

22 Caterpillar infested with ichneumons 



THE ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. 23 Incision in caterpillar 

24 Twig caterpillars 

25 Beetle properly pinned and spread 

26 Beetle mounted with expanded wings 
2J Burying beetles 

28 Nest of carpenter bee 

CHAPTER VI 
Fig. 1 Scoop 

2 Caddice fly and houses 

3 Horned corydalis 

4 Giant water bug 

5 Fresh water snails 

CHAPTER VII 

Fig. 1 Eggs of winkle 

2 Skate's egg 

3 Univalve shell 

4 Bivalve shell 

5 Hermit crab 

6 Sea urchin 

7 Sea anemone 

8 Serpent starfish 

9 Naked mollusc 

10 Swimming crab 

11 Sand dollar 

12 Native coral 

13 Teredo or ship worm 

14 Wood bored by teredo 

15 Goose barnacles 

16 Dredge 

17 Trawl 

18 Tangles 

19 Oyster tongs 

20 Position of launch for dredging 

21 Position of dredge when sailing 

22 Tray and sieve for emptying dredge 

23 Coral nippers 

24 Towing net 

25 Pteropod shell 



THE ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. 26 Argonaut 

The nautilus 
27 A Baby crab 
27 B Young oyster 

27 C Young starfish 
2?] D Young barnacle 

28 Shell mounted on wire 

29 Live coral 

30 A perfect coral specimen 

31 Gorgonia with expanded animals 

CHAPTER VIII 

Fig. 1 Submarine photograph 

2 Shrike photographed from life 

3 Deer or white-footed mice 
Young whippoorwill 
Gray Squirrel 

4 Odd positions of turtle and frog as disclosed by 

photography 

5 Portuguese man-o'-war, photographed from living speci- 

men 

6 Sea anemone photographed from life 

7 Prometheus moth photographed from live specimen 

8 Sphinx caterpillar photographed from life 

9 Moth which imitates bark photographed from life 

10 Beetles which mimic hornets 

11 A fly which mimics a bee 

12 Photographs aid in identifying trees 

CHAPTER IX 

Fig. 1 Scales on butterflies' wings as seen under the microscope 

2 Photomicrograph of fly's jaw 

3 Photomicrograph of shell-sand 

4 Camera-lucida drawing of insects' antennae 

5 Camera-lucida drawing of insects' feet 

6 Camera-lucida drawing of section of horse's skin 

7 Photomicrograph of section of cat's stomach 

8 Photomicrograph of cinchonidine crystals 

9 Photomicrograph of snail's tongue 

10 Photomicrograph of head of aphis lion 



THE ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig. ii Direct magnified photograph of dandelion head 
12 Direct magnified photograph of aphis lion 

CHAPTER X 
Fig. i Hatchet used as tomahawk 

2 Stone skull-cracker 

3 Gun-stock ornamented by Indians 

4 Bow and arrow case 

5 Photograph of Indian carvings on rock 

6 How to mount arrow-heads 

Photograph of prehistoric ruin in central America 

CHAPTER XII 
Stamps of various countries 



PART I 
NATURAL OBJECTS 



THE BOY COLLECTOR'S 
HANDBOOK 

CHAPTER I 

WHY AND WHAT TO COLLECT 

THERE are many reasons why boys should 
collect something. In the first place collecting 
furnishes an interest, an ambition, and a definite 
object; and, moreover, a boy can scarcely collect 
anything without adding to his education and knowl- 
edge. To collect some things it is necessary to get 
out in the open, to stroll through fields and forests, 
and this in itself makes collecting worth while. 
Finally, collections, if properly made, cared for, and 
classified, are often of great intrinsic value, and 
many a youthful collection Has been sold for a large 
sum after the young collector had grown to man- 
hood. 

As to just what to collect, each boy must decide 
for himself. As a general rule, collect the things 



4 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

in which you are most deeply interested. If you are 
fond of outdoor life and take an interest in flowers, 
plants, insects, minerals, or other natural objects, 
by all means select one or two of these for your 
collections. If, on the other hand, you are fond of 
history, geography, travel, strange people, or similar 
subjects, you should collect objects relating to them, 
such as antiques, weapons, war relics, documents, 
native handiwork, stamps, coins, etc. 

But don't try to collect too much; it's almost im- 
possible to collect a great variety of objects of widely 
different kinds and do justice to them all. Another 
matter which should influence the choice of objects 
to collect is that of expense. It costs a great deal 
to collect some things and few boys can afford to 
spend the necessary money. Good antiques, old 
books, armor, valuable autographs, and even coins 
all have a high market value and are better suited 
to wealthy, advanced collectors or great museums 
than to boys. Such things must usually be pur- 
chased or exchanged and, moreover, there are so 
many counterfeits and forgeries constantly offered 
that an expert knowledge and long experience is re- 
quired to tell the real from the spurious articles. 

There are numerous other things which may be 



WHY AND WHAT TO COLLECT 5 

collected at far less expense and which are just as 
interesting, however. Stamps, exclusive of the 
rarest issues, are fairly cheap if purchased, and, as 
a rule, the young collector may obtain a very com- 
plete and interesting collection of stamps without 
buying a single specimen. 

Many interesting war and historical objects may 
be obtained with little cash outlay, but in every case, 
where man-made objects are collected, you must 
either buy, beg, or exchange the specimens. For 
this reason collections of natural objects are far 
more satisfactory, for the collector can secure and 
prepare the specimens himself and in doing this will 
learn far more of interest and value than would be 
possible when merely purchasing or trading the 
specimens from others. A great many people boast 
of the cost of their collections ; apparently thinking 
that the more expensive a collection is the more 
valuable it becomes. On the other hand, many col- 
lectors are proud of the size of their collections and 
state that they contain so many thousand stamps, 
plants, or what not, evidently believing that mere 
numbers of specimens prove the value of their 
possessions. As a matter of fact, neither cost nor 
quantity necessarily means that the collection is 



6 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

really valuable. A certain stamp, coin, or other 
specimen may cost thousands of dollars and yet that 
one object would not constitute a collection and 
might not be one-tenth as interesting or valuable as 
would a well-selected, typical series of specimens 
costing a few cents, or nothing at all. It is the same 
way with size. A collection may number thousands 
of specimens and yet be so badly arranged, so im- 
properly classified, so poorly preserved or otherwise 
so lacking in interest or value as a whole to be 
worthless. Any one can gather together a half mil- 
lion or more common postage stamps or wild flow- 
ers, but that wouldn't prove that the accumulation 
was a good collection. 

The objects to aim at in collecting anything and 
everything are first; completeness. Second; inter- 
est. Third; perfection. Fourth; classification. 
Fifth; arrangement; and last; attractiveness. In- 
stead of dividing your efforts and striving to collect 
half a dozen different things at once, confine your 
collections to one certain line until that line is as 
complete as possible. Of course this does not mean 
that you should pass by and lose a specimen of one 
thing simply because you're looking for another — 
rare opportunities often come to the collector by 



WHY AND WHAT TO COLLECT 7 

chance; but keep your mind centered on the par- 
ticular object in view and let others be side issues. 
There are few who can make a successful collection 
of a number of widely different objects, and it takes 
years of practice and a natural "collector's instinct" 
to accomplish it. The author was for many years 
a professional natural history collector. On my 
various trips and expeditions I invariably made one 
certain line of specimens my chief object and while 
"all was fish that came to my net," yet I found that 
I could accomplish far more in this way — and by 
keeping eyes and ears open — than by having no par- 
ticular object in view and looking aimlessly for any- 
thing and everything. I have secured many a rare 
insect while hunting birds, many a valuable plant 
while seeking insects or reptiles; but in every case 
these were merely bits of luck and the result of eyes 
trained to note any unusual thing. 

The collector who starts forth searching for min- 
erals will have better success in collecting minerals 
than the fellow who goes out to collect anything that 
comes along, and the same is true with every other 
class of specimens. Don't be discouraged if the 
first few objects you obtain are poor or injured — 
don't discard them; but wait until you get better 



8 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

specimens to replace them. An imperfect or small 
specimen is far better than none at all and may serve 
to fill a gap in a series for a long time. Don't let a 
specimen pass merely because it's common; when 
collecting there is no time like the present — in a 
few months or even weeks the common thing may 
become rare and, even if it does not, the sooner you 
collect it and have done with it the better. After 
it is added to your collection it won't bother you any 
more and you can dismiss it from your thoughts 
once and for all. 

Don't forget that the things common and unin- 
teresting in your locality may be very rare in others 
and that such things may be traded to advantage, 
so always have duplicates on hand if possible. 
Even if you don't trade them, duplicates may come 
in handy at any time if you break, lose, or injure 
a specimen. Try to make your collections just as 
complete as possible ; if you collect stamps, endeavor 
to fill out sets of each country rather than to have a 
few of one and a few of another country; and if 
you collect plants, insects, or minerals, try and ob- 
tain a complete series of the species or varieties 
found in your neighborhood before giving much 
time to those from other districts. By "interest" I 



WHY AND WHAT TO COLLECT 9 

mean natural, human interest, educational interest, 
and popular interest combined. A specimen may 
be interesting as a curio and yet have no educational 
interest whatever, or it may have an educational in- 
terest and value and yet not interest one person in 
ten thousand who sees it. Many war relics and 
other things have a human interest from associa- 
tions, and yet to one who does not know their his- 
tory they may seem mere rags or "junk." So also 

certain things have a popular interest and will at- 
tract every one who sees them, and yet, from an 
educational or scientific viewpoint, they may be 
worthless. Strive to combine these various inter- 
ests in your collections and make your collections 
serve as many useful purposes as possible. Lots 
of things possess a great deal of real human inter- 
est once we learn something of them, and it is in 
thus bringing out the real interest in objects that the 
collector benefits mankind and that the collection 
becomes educational. 

Of course every one should try to have his speci- 
mens as perfect as possible; but even if each object 
is faultless in this respect the collection may be so 
badly arranged, so incorrectly labeled or classified, 
or so unattractively displayed as to be imperfect as 



io THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

a whole. Merely gathering or collecting the speci- 
mens is not the main thing; it's just as important to 
have the specimens properly and correctly labeled, 
neatly arranged, and well cared for as to get them 
in the first place. A mass of material thrown 
hodge-podge into a chest or drawers, and without 
labels or other data, is of mighty little value or in- 
terest. If a thing's worth collecting at all it's worth 
looking after, labeling, and classifying. It isn't 
necessary to be an expert in any line in order to 
classify and label your specimens — you can learn 
more about them by doing this than in any other 
way, and many a famous scientist of to-day learned 
his first lessons while gathering, identifying and 
labeling his boyhood collections. 

There are many ways of identifying and classify- 
ing your collections. In the first place there are 
books treating of nearly every object that can be 
collected, and by referring to these you can usually 
identify your specimens and can learn much of value 
and interest in regard to them. Public museums 
are also very useful, and oftentimes you can more 
easily identify a specimen by comparing it with the 
museum collections than by reference to printed 
descriptions and illustrations. If, as sometimes 



WHY AND WHAT TO COLLECT n 

happens, you are unable to identify a specimen 
through either or both of these methods, the speci- 
men itself or a duplicate — or even a sketch or photo- 
graph — may be sent to some well-known authority 
with a request for information. Nine times out of 
ten your request will be granted courteously and 
willingly, for there is a strong bond of sympathy 
and fellow-feeling between all collectors. 

Have every specimen labeled and catalogued. 
In the case of stamps, autographs, and many other 
objects which are usually kept in books or port- 
folios, this is very simple, and, in fact, the position 
of a stamp or postcard in a book is in itself equiva- 
lent to a label. 

Objects kept in drawers, cases, cabinets, jars, or 
any other situations should be very carefully labeled, 
however. It's an easy matter for a specimen to be 
misplaced and while you may remember it and 
know just what it is, where it came from, and all 
about its history, yet others will not, and a really 
rare specimen may for this reason become utterly 
worthless. 

Whenever possible a specimen should bear a de- 
scriptive label, with the name (both English and 
scientific), date of collection (in the case of an- 



12 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

tiques, the date of its manufacture or use), how it 
was obtained, locality, sex (in the case of animate 
objects), and any interesting facts regarding its 
history, habits, etc. In addition to this label, the 
specimen should be numbered, either in ink or paint, 
and a similar number should be entered in a cata- 
logue, followed by a full description of the speci- 
men, with its name. This is very important, for if 
the large label is misplaced, lost, or detached, a 
reference to the catalogue will serve to set all doubts 
at rest. 

In the case of very small or delicate objects it is 
often impossible, or at least difficult, to provide them 
with individual labels, and in such cases the num- 
ber and catalogue description alone must be de- 
pended upon, although a label may, if desired, be 
placed in the box, tray, or drawer with the speci- 
men. 

Labeling and cataloguing may seem very small 
and unimportant matters, and beginners and 
amateurs often overlook their importance. This is 
a great mistake, for the value or interest of a col- 
lection depends to great extent upon the accuracy 
and care with which it is labeled and catalogued. 

Arrangement is another important matter. Just 



WHY AND WHAT TO COLLECT 13 

what method you follow will depend a great deal 
upon the character of the collection, the object you 
have in view, and the number of specimens, as well 
as your own resources and good judgment. If you 
wish to exhibit your collections they should be ar- 
ranged with this idea, whereas, if you collect for 
your own satisfaction and only show the specimens 
to a few favored friends, a very different arrange- 
ment may be followed. A great deal also depends 
upon the character of the specimens themselves. 
Some things, as for example rocks, fossils, shells, 
etc., require little care or protection and may be 
arranged in boxes, trays, cabinets, cases, drawers, 
or shelves, for there is little danger of their being 
injured by light, exposure, air, or dust. On the 
other hand, delicate specimens, such as butterflies, 
plants, flowers, etc., must be carefully protected 
from the dust, sun, and air, as well as from insect 
pests. Collections of antiques or relics, which in- 
clude articles of hair, cloth, feathers, or other 
fabrics, must be carefully protected, for the moths 
and other insects, bright light, dry air, and dust 
are all to be guarded against. 

If you have duplicates of any or all of your speci- 
mens you should invariably keep one set for display 



14 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

or exhibition and another for reserve, and then if 
anything happens to the exhibition specimen you 
will have the one held in reserve to take its place. 

When arranging specimens for exhibition, try to 
follow out some definite system. If your collec- 
tion consists of historical relics, arrange them as 
nearly as possible in the order of their age. If the 
collection is intended to show the development or 
evolution of a certain class of objects, arrange the 
specimens to show this. If the collection is of 
natural objects, such as plants, insects, marine life, 
minerals, etc., arrange the specimens in groups il- 
lustrating the various families, genera, species, etc., 
or else in groups to show the varieties or species 
found in certain localities. 

Many interesting collections can be made of very 
simple, everyday things arranged and classified in 
such a way as to illustrate the various steps and 
processes of manufacture or preparation. Aside 
from the enhanced value which arrangement gives 
to a collection, is the question of attractiveness. 
This may seem of little importance and if you expect 
to keep your collections strictly private and never 
exhibit them, attractiveness is of no particular con- 
sequence. It is seldom indeed that a collector does 



WHY AND WHAT TO COLLECT 15 

this, however, and half the fun in collecting is in 
showing your collections to visitors and friends. 
A collection may seem very interesting and attrac- 
tive to the owner and yet may fail to interest or 
attract others, merely because it is not attractively 
displayed or arranged. A dirty, dusty lot of speci- 
mens is never attractive nor interesting, no matter 
how valuable or rare the specimens may be. A col- 
lection of simple, common things, neatly labeled, 
well arranged, properly cared for, and displayed in 
orderly trays, drawers, or cabinets, is far more at- 
tractive and interesting than a disorderly, poorly 
labeled and carelessly arranged collection of rare 
or valuable things. 

. Before you can commence identifying, labeling, 
or arranging your collections you must decide what 
to collect, and this is perhaps the most difficult task 
of all. In a broad way, everything may be divided 
into two great classes: man-made objects and 
natural objects. In the former are war and his- 
torical relics, antiques, Indian relics, coins, stamps, 
books, art objects, autographs, and many similar 
things. In the other class are woods, leaves, flow- 
ers, fruits, rocks and minerals, fossils, marine speci- 
mens, insects, birds, birds' eggs, etc. Many of the 



16 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

latter class of objects grade into the former, for a 
complete collection includes not only the true natural 
objects but the various articles or preparations made 
from them by man. Thus, in a mineral collection, 
articles made from the raw materials should be 
shown in order to illustrate their economic or in- 
dustrial value and uses, and this is true also of 
plants, marine animals, and many other things. In 
the same way a collection of man-made objects is 
far more valuable and interesting if it includes 
specimens of the raw materials from which the 
specimens are made. 

Certain objects in both of these great classes 
should be eliminated by the young collector, for 
various reasons. Thus, among the man-made ob- 
jects, true antiques — such as furniture, armor, etc; 
objects of arts, such as paintings, statuary, carv- 
ings, etc. ; rare books and even autographs — should 
be avoided owing to their bulk, cost, or the danger 
of spurious imitations. So also, among natural ob- 
jects, you should refrain from collecting birds, birds' 
eggs, and most animals. These are all very well 
for the larger museums and for advanced scientific 
collectors, professional ornithologists, and natural- 
ists, for only by actually collecting the birds and 



WHY AND WHAT TO COLLECT 17 

their eggs and the animals can scientists teach us 
their value, habits, and many other matters. The 
young collector, however, seldom gives the world 
any additional knowledge of value and merely de- 
stroys life for the sake of gathering together a col- 
lection for his own amusement or benefit. It can- 
not be denied that collections of birds and birds' 
eggs are interesting and attractive; but with mod- 
ern photography, collections of photographs of live 
birds and animals and birds' nests can be made, and 
these will serve every purpose of a collection of the 
real specimens. Moreover, far greater skill and 
knowledge is required to make a complete collection 
of bird photographs than to make a collection of the 
birds themselves, and such a collection is far less 
trouble, more lasting, and more easily arranged and 
exhibited than a collection of real birds or birds' 
eggs. 

While we cannot afford to sacrifice the lives of 
any birds, yet with insects and marine life the case 
is entirely different. The great majority of our 
insects are injurious, and by collecting them we are 
really doing an excellent work and are benefiting 
our gardeners and agriculturists. Properly col- 
lected insects do not suffer, and to catch a butter- 



18 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

fly, kill it instantly with benzine, and preserve it is 
far more humane than to crush the caterpillar, 
which devours our plants, underfoot. Sentimental- 
ists may think with regret of killing butterflies, but 
they shudder with aversion at a big green "worm" 
and do not hesitate to step upon an injurious larva 
or to spray their plants with slow poisons, and yet 
the same ugly worm is only the butterfly in another 
form. 

Neither is there any valid reason for not collect- 
ing marine animals. It is not half so cruel to pre- 
serve some low form of marine life in alcohol or 
formaldehyde as to open a live oyster and eat it or to 
drop a living lobster or crab in boiling water. 
Moreover, the marine animals are really less known 
to the average person than any other class of animal 
life and a great deal of real educational value may be 
learned by collecting them. 

If for any reason you or your parents object to 
collecting such things as insects or marine animals, 
there are still plenty of other natural objects to col- 
lect. Plants are found everywhere, and good col- 
lections of plants, flowers, seeds, fruits, etc., are al- 
ways interesting, instructive, and valuable. Rocks 
and minerals offer a splendid field, fossils are 



WHY AND WHAT TO COLLECT 19 

marvelous and fascinating, and last, but by no means 
least, is the wonderful world opened to us through 
the use of the microscope. A collection of micro- 
scopic objects is a never-ending source of interest, 
value, and education, and the boy with a microscope 
and a collection of slides can dwell for hours and 
days in a veritable fairyland of his own. 



CHAPTER II 

ROCKS AND MINERALS 

OF all natural objects probably the easiest and 
simplest to collect are rocks and minerals. 
There is scarcely an inhabited country in the world 
where rocks or minerals of some kind do not exist. 
Even on plains or prairies where rocks — as we com- 
monly know them — are not found, there are sand, 
earth, clay, or similar things which are really in- 
cluded in the mineral class, and practically the only 
spots where some form of mineral is not found are 
swamp lands. By this I do not mean that a boy 
living on a plain or prairie can obtain a good collec- 
tion of either rocks or minerals, and boys living 
where real rocks and minerals are scarce should 
select some other class of specimens for their collec- 
tions. 

In most places, however, rocks and minerals are 
quite common and the average boy will find little 
difficulty in making a large and interesting collec- 

20 



ROCKS AND MINERALS 21 

tion of minerals from his own neighborhood. The 
variety of rocks and minerals which may be found 
in one small locality is really remarkable, and until 
you commence to hunt for specimens you cannot 
realize how many there are. A single ledge or cliff 
of rock may, upon close inspection, reveal a score 
or more of minerals, while the bed of a brook or 
river may yield a hundred or more varieties of rock 
among the water-worn pebbles. 

It is not only simple and easy to collect minerals, 
but the tools and implements required are few and 
inexpensive, the specimens are easy to prepare and 
preserve, they are not injured by dust, sunlight or 
insects, and in most cases they are readily identified 
and classified. 

Many rocks and minerals are intrinsically valu- 
able and a great many more are of great value as r 
specimens. Minerals which are excessively rare in 
most places may be very abundant locally, and if the 
young collector finds such deposits he can readily 
sell or exchange specimens to great advantage. 

The tools and implements required for collecting 
rocks and minerals are as follows : A good geolo- 
gist's hammer, a cold chisel, a stone drill, some stone 
wedges, a stout canvas or leather bag. 



22 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

If you cannot obtain a geologist's hammer, an 
ordinary blacksmith's or machinist's hammer will 
answer. One cold chisel will serve your purpose, 
but several of various sizes are preferable. The 
drill may be omitted in most cases, as this tool, as 
well as the wedges, are only useful in splitting large 
pieces of rock or ledges or in blasting. A pick-ax 
is often useful or even essential, as is a small spade, 
for in many localities it is necessary to dig away 
loose rock and earth to reach the ledges, veins, or 
solid rock beneath. These need not be taken on 
every collecting trip, however, for if you find a spot 
where they are required you can make a special trip 
fully equipped to carry on your amateur mining 
operations. 

As in every class of collecting, two boys can work 
to better advantage than one when collecting min- 
erals. In the first place it's more enjoyable to have 
a companion along; there's less liability of being 
injured or disabled by slipping or falling, and with 
two boys there's just twice as many chances of find- 
ing rare things. Moreover, when two are along it 
makes collecting a game and each will do his best to 
find more and better specimens than the other. 
Then at the end of the trip you can compare notes 



ROCKS AND MINERALS 23 

and can trade specimens, provided you do not both 
obtain the same sort of specimens. In selecting a 
companion for your collecting trip do not choose a 
boy who is jealous, cranky, surly, obstinate, or over- 
bearing — such boys spoil the trip and are a nuisance. 
It's far better to go alone than to have a disagree- 
able companion or one who is always complaining, 
getting tired, or losing interest. When collecting 
minerals — or for that matter anything in the woods, 
fields, or along the seashore — wear old, strong 
clothes and stout, easy boots. You'll feel much 
more comfortable if you don't have to look after 
your clothes, and knocking about among rocks, 
brambles, or mud flats is hard on clothing. 

The best places in which to search for mineral 
specimens are ledges, cliffs, and mountain sides. 
Quarries — especially old ones — are fine fields for the 
mineral collector, and the rough granite ledges 
which jut from the earth on hillsides and hilltops are 
often veritable treasure troves. The pebbly, rocky 
beds of brooks and rivers are also fine collecting 
grounds, for here the rocks from far and near are 
washed clean and exposed. At first glance these 
may all seem much alike, but if you crack a few of 
the water-worn cobbles open you'll be surprised to 



24 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

find how many different kinds there are. Even 
rocks which are not found at all in the ledges and 
cliffs of the vicinity may occur in the beds of 
streams, for they are often carried immense dis- 
tances by the ice in spring and in many districts the 
ancient glaciers brought masses of rock and loose 
stones from regions hundreds of miles distant and 
dropped them here and there upon the earth. 

A great deal of the fascination in collecting any 
natural object is that one never knows what one 
may find. This is particularly true of rocks and 
minerals. A dull, rounded stone may, when broken 
open, reveal a magnificent crystal-filled hollow. 
Such formations are known as geodes and in some 
localities they are very abundant. At other times 
a few glittering crystals or an insignificant bit of 
metal in a rock or ledge may lead you to wonderful 
discoveries. Many uninteresting granite ledges 
hide marvelous stores of magnificent crystals. The 
rich tourmaline mines of Maine were discovered by 
a farmer's boy in search of minerals, and beryls, 
aquamarines, garnets, topaz, and many other rare 
precious and semi-precious stones occur in pockets 
in granite and other common rocks. Sometimes the 
crystals are found lying loose on the surface where 



ROCKS AND MINERALS 25 

they have been left exposed by the decomposition 
of the surrounding rock. At other times a blast 
will reveal the hidden treasures, and if at any time 
you find traces of crystals or veins of ore it is a good 
plan to drill a few holes and blast away a portion 
of the rock. In mining localities you may obtain a 
great number of very rare and interesting speci- 
mens. As a rule, metal ores are found associated 
with various other substances, and the combinations 
formed by the metal with other minerals and their 
salts produce an almost endless variety of minerals 
and an infinite number of colors and forms. Min- 
ers and quarrymen frequently find interesting and 
beautiful specimens which are thrown aside, and if 
you can get acquainted with these men they will be 
of the greatest help in securing fine specimens for 
you. 

Moreover, you can spend many hours, or days, 
on a single cliff or ledge and still obtain new things, 
and only by going over each outcrop of rock with 
great care can you hope to obtain a representative 
collection of the minerals of your vicinity. 

Good specimens do not depend upon size alone. 
Some of the finest specimens are small, for the per- 
fection of shape, the color, form, and typical ap- 



26 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

pearance counts more than mere size in most cases. 
In the case of crystals, however, it is different. The 
larger the crystal the better, provided the color and 
form are good, and you should always strive to col- 
lect crystals as perfect and as large as possible. 
Crystals often occur in large groups or masses, and 
as most crystals are as brittle as glass great care 
should be used in getting them out. Don't try to 
knock off crystals or groups of crystals with a ham- 
mer — the shock or jar alone will often break them 
— but cut around the crystal or the mass of crystals 
with a cold chisel and hammer. If the crystals are 
very large or slender, pack cotton, wool, bits of cloth 
or even hay, grass, or moss, among them while you 
work. This will often prevent them from being 
shattered by an accidental jar and will protect them 
until you reach home. When carrying crystals 
never throw them loosely among other rocks in your 
bag. Pack them in pieces of cloth or burlap and 
carry them in a separate bag or in your pockets if 
possible. If you collect in a locality where lime- 
stone formations occur, you may find the entrance 
to a cave or cavern and within this you will prob- 
ably discover many beautiful stalactites and stalag- 
mites. The former are white or tinted, conical or 



ROCKS AND MINERALS 27 

tapered formations hanging from the roof of the 
caves, and the latter are protuberances rising from 
the floors. These are both formed by water con- 
taining lime in solution which percolates through the 
rocks. Where the water drips from above the lime 
crystallizes and hardens, and as the water continues 
to follow down on the tiny excrescence thus formed, 
a pendant stalactite is gradually produced. Wher- 
ever the water drips from the stalactites to the floor 
beneath, other cones of limestone are built up and 
in time many of the stalactites and stalagmites join 
and form columns or pillars. Both stalactites and 
stalagmites vary in size from tiny, needle-like things 
to huge cones several feet in diameter and the 
columns which join them also vary in the same way 
(Fig. 1). At times the lime-filled water runs over 
rocks, ledges, sand, or boulders and covers them 
with a thin, stony covering of transparent dripstone. 
This is often delicately tinted and so beautifully 
formed that it appears like intricate carvings or 
fine stone lacework. Some of the largest known 
caves, such as the Luray and Mammoth caves, the 
famous Bellamar caves of Cuba and the Crystal 
Cave in Bermuda, were discovered by accident. As 
these limestone caves may be of vast extent and 



28 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

many of them are partly filled with water, great 
care should be taken in exploring them. A light 
or torch should always be carried, and if you are 
alone, or the cave is large, you should fasten one 
end of a ball of twine at the entrance and unwind 
it as you proceed. This will enable you to find your 
way back in case you become confused or lost, which 
may easily happen in a large cavern. 

Some kinds of minerals are often found in soft 
earth, sand, mud, or clay and after heavy rains or 
washouts they may be seen lying exposed on hill- 
sides, on the banks of brooks, or in cut banks. 
Many of these are crystals which were originally 
embedded in solid rock, but which have been freed 
by the action of weather through countless centu- 
ries. Topaz crystals often occur in such situations 
and in many places very curious crystal-like forma- 
tions of sandstone are found in similar situations 
(Fig. 2). Clay beds often yield strange masses of 
stonelike material known as concretions (Fig. 3). 
They are usually recognizable by the concentric lay- 
ers or rings which are visible when the masses are 
broken apart, and while not true minerals they are 
interesting and a collection illustrating their various 
forms is well worth making. On bare and sandy 





Various Crystals 

(See Chapter II) 



ROCKS AND MINERALS 29 

plains and prairies meteorites are often found. 
These are fragments of shooting stars or meteors, 
sometimes known as aereolites, and are always in- 
teresting and valuable. There are two general 
classes of meteorites, known as stony meteorites and 
metallic meteorites. The former are sometimes 
difficult to distinguish from ordinary rocks, but the 
latter may be recognized by their weight, their me- 
tallic surface, and the rust which covers them when 
they have been long exposed to weather. Meteors 
are no more abundant on plains than elsewhere and 
the only reason that more of them are discovered 
in such places is because they are more readily seen. 
On a plain, where stones are unknown, a meteorite 
— even if very small — will attract attention, whereas 
in a stony or wooded country a very large one might 
pass unnoticed. All meteorites are valuable and 
some of them are worth more than their weight in 
gold, so the boy collector should always keep his 
eyes open for these fragments from other worlds. 

After you have collected your specimens they 
should be carefully washed, cleansed, and labeled. 
If you have difficulty in identifying the specimens 
by descriptions and figures in books or by compari- 
son with museum specimens, you can send them to 



30 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

some mineralogist. Most mineralogists are very 
glad to help amateurs identify their specimens, and 
whenever you find an unknown or unusual specimen 
that you cannot classify a piece should be sent to 
some expert with permission to retain the specimen. 
Many of the things you send will be so common 
that they will be worthless to the mineralogist, but 
some may be rare or of unusually perfect form or 
color and such will repay the person for his time 
and trouble. If you wish to study minerals or rocks 
very deeply you will require books and technical 
works on mineralogy and you will also have to 
learn about blowpipe analysis. For the young col- 
lector, however, this is not necessary, and it is in 
reality a matter entirely distinct from collecting. 

In arranging your mineral collections you should 
aim to keep each group of minerals by itself. Thus, 
all the various forms of iron ore may be grouped to- 
gether, all the forms of quartz may be placed in an- 
other group, all the limestones in another, all the 
conglomerates in another, and so on. Granite, 
marble, or other commercial stones and rocks should 
be exhibited, both in the rough and finished condi- 
tions, and if it is possible to do so, gems and semi- 
precious stones should be shown in both the cut and 



ROCKS AND MINERALS 



3 1 



uncut state. The majority of mineral and rock 
specimens may be displayed in open trays, cases, or 
cabinets, but some varieties show to better advan- 
tage when set off by special surroundings. Thus, 
clear, transparent crystals look better when ar- 
ranged on dark backgrounds, such as black card- 
board or velvet, while dark-colored crystals look 
best on light colored backgrounds (Fig. 4). Cal- 




Fig. 5. Calcite crystals have the peculiar property of causing all 
things to appear double when seen through the mineral 

cite has the peculiar property of producing double 
refraction. That is, a line, letter, or other mark 
seen through a transparent piece of calcite appears 
double and specimens of this mineral should be ex- 
hibited with a ruled card or paper beneath them to 
illustrate this feature (Fig. 5). 

In every case the specimens should be arranged 
to exhibit their peculiarities or typical forms to the 



32 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

very best advantage. There is scarcely a piece of 
rock or a crystal which is equally good on all sides, 
and care should be taken to have the best side on 
view. Many rocks and minerals have a form of 
cleavage or a stratified structure which is peculiar 
to their kind, and when such is the case you should 
aim to show this. Other minerals have physical 
peculiarities which should be illustrated. For ex- 
ample, flexible sandstone, when in thin strips, will 
bend readily, but in short or thick pieces is scarcely 
distinguishable from ordinary sandstone. In such 
a case a thin piece should be supported between 
blocks to illustrate its flexible character. If a rock 
or mineral is composed of a number of different 
minerals it is an excellent plan to show, not only the 
rock itself, but each of its component parts. Gran- 
ite should be shown with quartz, feldspar, mica, and 
hornblende beside it, and similar methods should 
be followed with other rocks composed of various 
minerals. 

A most interesting exhibit may be made of min- 
erals and rocks used for commercial purposes. 
Mica, for example, should be shown in its raw, mas- 
sive state and beside it the thin flakes or sheets 



ROCKS AND MINERALS 33 

should be placed, as well as ground or pulverized 
mica. Asbestos may be shown in its natural form 
and with it you should place the selected fibers, 
asbestos felt, asbestos paper, asbestos cloth, and 
similar asbestos products. Various other minerals, 
such as sulphur, gypsum, iron, copper, etc., may be 
treated in the same way. 

Although the larger and more bulky specimens 
may be safely placed in open drawers, trays, boxes, 
or even on shelves, the smaller and more valuable 
specimens should be protected. They may be placed 
in glass-covered trays or boxes or in small vials with 
cotton, or they may be wired, tied, cemented, or 
otherwise formly attached to stiff cardboard or 
wooden mounts. Minerals should be numbered 
with indelible ink or paint wherever possible, and 
small crystals or similar specimens, attached to 
mounts or in bottles, may be numbered on the 
mounts or numbered tags may be placed in the 
bottles. In addition to the numbers, a descriptive 
label should accompany each specimen, and while 
this label may be altered or arranged to suit your 
own ideas it should be quite complete and more or 
less as follows : 



34 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 



No Date... 

Name 

Locality , 

Collector 

Composed of 

Uses 



Such a label, when properly filled out, will add 
greatly to the value, interest, and attractiveness of 
the collection, for the observer may at a glance learn 
a great deal about the specimen. A bit of sulphur 
ore may not appear of special interest, but if the 
label shows that it came from Sicily and that it is 
used in making paper, sugar, gunpowder, sulphuric 
acid, medicine, disinfectants, etc., a real interest is 
added. Finally, remember that the greatest value 
of all collections and the strongest argument in their 
favor is that they teach something, and strive, there- 
fore, to make your collections as educationally in- 
teresting as you possibly can. 



CHAPTER III 

FOSSILS 

IN many ways collecting fossils is very similar to 
collecting minerals and quite often the two may 
be combined. Many minerals and rocks contain 
fossils, and nearly all fossils are found associated 
with minerals. Fossils are even more interesting 
and of greater educational value than rocks and 
minerals, for while the latter teach us a great deal 
about the formation and history of our earth the 
former tell us the marvelous story of the develop- 
ment of vegetable and animal life upon our planet. 

It is through a study and knowledge of fossils 
that we have learned about the strange plants and 
remarkable monsters that once populated the earth. 
As nearly every branch of the animal and vegetable 
kingdom is represented among fossils, the boy who 
is interested in insects, animals, reptiles, or plants 
will find fossils fascinating things to collect and 
study. 

Many people seem to think fossils are unworthy 

35 



2>6 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

of notice or consideration, but if it wasn't for fos- 
sils modern progress and civilization would be prac- 
tically impossible. The coal with which we heat 
our dwellings, smelt our metals, operate steam 
engines, and perform the countless tasks of every- 
day life, is merely fossil peat, and in coal mines the 
fossil collector may find many beautiful and inter- 
esting specimens. 

Practically the same tools are required for col- 
lecting fossils as for collecting rocks and minerals, 
and a very good plan is for two boys to work to- 
gether — one specializing on fossils, the other on 
minerals — and thus each can help out the other, for 
the mineral collector will often find splendid fossils 
and the fossil hunter will frequently run across 
rare minerals. 

In some localities fossils are very abundant, 
while in others they are very rare. Unlike min- 
erals, fossils may often be found on plains or 
prairies or in swamps ; and even on the great desert 
of Sahara fossils are abundant. It may seem 
strange to think of rinding fossil shells, sea-urchins, 
and other marine creatures in the midst of vast 
dry deserts, but you must remember that these des- 
erts were once seas and what are now sandy, barren 



FOSSILS 37 

plains were formerly portions of the bed of the 
ocean. 

In other places fossils are found in rocks and 
cliffs, and where limestone formations abound the 
rocks are frequently composed almost wholly of 
fossils of various kinds. Sometimes the rocks are 
made up of millions of fossil shells, cemented to- 
gether by limestone, while in other localities the 
cliffs are composed of fossil plants, insects, and 
strange water animals. In still other places the 
apparently solid rock is in reality fossilized coral 
and when cut and polished such rocks show the con- 
struction and texture of the corals in a marvelous 
manner (Fig. i). 

In still other places one may find fossil shells 
(Fig. 2), sea-urchins (Fig. 3), corals, and various 
other objects lying loose in beds of sand, peat, or 
clay. Oftentimes these are as perfect and clean as 
modern shells upon the beaches, and in many cases 
the pearly linings and colors are still bright, al- 
though thousands of years have passed since they 
lived and crawled about upon the ancient seashores. 
Many times the real shells or other objects have en- 
tirely disappeared and only the mud or clay, which 
once filled them, remains. This mud or clay, how- 



38 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

ever, has been transformed to stone and forms such 
perfect casts of the originals that it is difficult to 
distinguish them from the real shells (Fig. 4). 
When you find fossil shells, sea-urchins, or other 
marine animals loose in sand, earth, or clay you 
must not suppose they were fossilized among the 
loose material. Usually such fossils have been left 
free of surrounding rock by the matrix decompos- 
ing and wearing away through countless ages. 
The fossils being much harder than the rock itself 
resist the action of the elements and are thus left 
clean, perfect, and beautifully preserved. 

Frequently, however, we find the fossil bones of 
extinct reptiles, fishes, birds, and animals buried in 
river banks, swamps, or other situations where rock 
never occurred. In such cases the bones have been 
fossilized while the surrounding material has re- 
mained unchanged. In ancient times many great 
reptiles and mammals (Fig. 5) became mired in 
swamps or broke through the ice on ponds and 
lakes and to-day their bones, in fossil form, tell the 
story of their death in the black muck of the peat 
bogs, or beneath the waters of lakes, which have 
long since disappeared. Sometimes the peat bogs 
or the beds of the lakes have become petrified and 







Fossils 

{See Chapter III) 




5 — One of the Ancient Reptiles Which Left Footprints in the 

Sands 
(See Chapter III) 



FOSSILS 39 

the fossils are found imbedded in the chalk, lime- 
stone, sandstone, or shale. In coal mines, fossils 
are always found, and many splendidly preserved 
ferns, palm-nuts, leaves, and other vegetables may 
be collected by searching among the pieces of slate 
and shale thrown out at the breakers (Fig. 6). 

Fossil fishes are very abundant in some districts 
and many of these are very perfect. In nearly all 
cases, however, the flesh and skin of fossil creatures 
has disappeared and only the bones remain and 
oftentimes the hardest portions of the skeleton, or 
the teeth alone, have been preserved. This is the 
case with fossil sharks' teeth, which are exceedingly 
abundant in some places. In the phosphate beds 
of our Southern States fossil sharks' teeth are 
found in great numbers and some of them are of 
enormous size. Such fossil teeth are also found at 
the bottom of the sea in some localities, and the 
United States Fish Commission steamers frequently 
dredge up these teeth by the bushel, when engaged 
in deep sea explorations. 

Even such temporary things as rain-drops, wave- 
marks, and footprints have been preserved in the 
form of fossils. These are usually found in sand- 
stone — especially the red sandstone of southern 



40 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

New England — which once formed the beaches and 
sand flats of broad bays and shallow estuaries. 
Over these flats the great, weird beasts of prehis- 
toric times wandered between tides, leaving their 
footprints upon the soft damp sand ; showers dotted 
the sands with their drops, wind-blown leaves fell 
upon the flats, dead fish were left here and there 
by the receding tide, and the waves wrought little, 
wavy ridges upon the shores. Over these the ris- 
ing water spread a thin layer of silt or mud and 
this, hardening to stone, preserved the marks be- 
neath for all time. 

To-day, hundreds of thousands of years since the 
wandering beasts, the summer showers, and the 
lapping tides left their marks upon these ancient 
beaches, we may break apart the firm, red sandstone 
and read the story written so long ago. 

From all this you can readily see that you may 
find fossils of one sort or another in all sorts of 
places, although certain formations never contain 
them. Thus, old lava beds, basalt, granite, trap, 
and similar rocks of volcanic or igneous origin never 
contain fossils, but in districts where such rocks oc- 
cur there are frequently deposits or beds of other 
materials which do contain fossils. In New Eng- 



FOSSILS 41 

land, where the principal rock formations are of 
granite or trap, there are also deposits of sandstone 
and limestone and these are rich in fossils. So, in 
many Western States where the rocks are of basalt 
or lava there are often beds of sand, clay, or other 
materials in which fossils are found abundantly. 

While many fossils are easily recognized by their 
resemblance to living forms, others are so different 
and so peculiar that they will often prove a puzzle 
to the young collector. Among such things are the 
stems of marine creatures known as "Crinoids." 
The perfect crinoid consists of a long, jointed stem 
with a pretty flower-like head at the summit and liv- 
ing species are known as "Sea Lilies" (Fig. 7). In 
ancient times these grew to gigantic size and cov- 
ered the oceans' beds. Sometimes vast numbers of 
the fossil stems are found, either imbedded in rock 
or lying free in sand or clay, and in their fragment- 
ary form they look like piles of lozenges or disks 
(Fig 8). It is seldom that an entire crinoid is 
found well preserved in fossil form and many a 
boy and man has been puzzled over the odd, jointed, 
stems which are so different from anything with 
which we are familiar. 

While the majority of fossils are preserved in 



42 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

limestone, sandstone, or slate — owing to the fact 
that they were originally at the bottom of rivers, 
lakes, or seas — there are others of a very different 




Fig. 7. A modern Crinoid or "Sea Lily" 

character. These, instead of being transformed to 
soft rock, have been impregnated with water con- 
taining silica and have been turned into the hardest 
quartz, agate, or jasper. This is very frequently 



FOSSILS 43 

the case with trees, plants, and other porous objects, 
and the fossil trees of the wonderful petrified forest 
of Arizona are often very beautiful when cut and 
polished. 

When collecting fossils great care should be used, 
for many fossils break very easily, while others be- 
come soft, crumbly, and cracked when exposed to 
the air. If fossils are in hard rock, a good sized 
block should be cut out and the superfluous rock may 
then be trimmed and cut away in your workshop 
and at your leisure. When fossils are in rock they 
are usually partly or wholly covered by the stone it- 
self and to chip off this coating and expose the fossil 
often requires a great deal of skill and patience. 
Red sandstone, slate, shale, and some other stones 
separate very easily in regular layers, but other 
stones must be chipped away, bit at a time. The 
only tools required to accomplish this are a hammer 
and small cold chisels, while a bag filled with sand 
should be placed beneath the specimen as you work 
at it. Sometimes there is so little difference in 
color or texture between the fossil and the sur- 
rounding rock that you will find difficulty in telling 
which is which, but wetting it will often bring the 
fossil out in sharp contrast. If, while chipping 



44 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

away the surrounding stone, a bit of the fossil 
breaks off don't throw it away, but preserve it care- 
fully and later on cement the piece or pieces in place. 
After the fossil is well cleaned the surrounding rock 
should be worked down smooth and even and if 
there is little contrast between the stone and the 
fossil the former may be slightly tinted with some 
color dissolved in water or alcohol. 

Many fossils, and especially fossil bones, are 
very fragile and may go all to pieces if handled 
carelessly. In such cases the fossils should be 
coated with glue or thin plaster-of-Paris before you 
remove them. Then, after they are safely in your 
workshop, they may be firmly imbedded in a plaster 
block, leaving one-half exposed and the temporary 
covering may be removed. Even badly broken fos- 
sils may be preserved and restored by imbedding 
the various pieces in plaster and filling in the cracks 
and missing portions with the same material. If 
the background is roughened with a chisel and 
tinted gray or brown it will look much like real 
stone and the fossil will appear as it did in the orig- 
inal rock. Professional fossil hunters often go to 
great trouble and expense to save apparently hope- 
less specimens and a common method of collecting 



FOSSILS 45 

and transporting cracked or broken fossils is to 
wrap them in string, or strips of burlap, and then 
coat the whole with plaster. The rags or strings 
prevent the plaster from filling up the crevices or 
cracks and at the same time binds and stiffens the 
bundle. Thus treated, very fragile fossil bones 
may be packed on mules, horses, or burros and 
safely carried long distances under most adverse 
conditions. In fact, plaster-of-Paris is a very use- 
ful material for the fossil collector and every boy 
should become familiar with its use. Aside from 
its value in mending or protecting specimens it is 
often invaluable in making casts of fossils so large 
or bulky that they cannot be saved. Where a large 
fossil, or one firmly inbedded in the rock, is found 
you can make a plaster mold and from this you can 
make plaster, wax, or paper casts which will exactly 
reproduce the real fossil. 

Fossils should be numbered and labeled like min- 
erals and the larger specimens may be arranged in 
trays, drawers, or boxes. The very small things 
may be placed in bottles or glass-covered boxes and 
still other specimens may be mounted. A very neat 
way of mounting fossils — especially fossil shells, 
sea urchins or other objects which are rounded or 



46 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

irregular in shape — is to mount them upon little 
columns or pillars of plaster. The column is easily 
made by filling a greased paper form or a small 
pillbox with plaster and just before the latter is 
hard the specimen may be placed in position upon 
it. When thoroughly hard and dry the paper or 
box may be removed and the plaster carefully 
trimmed and either left white, painted or coated 
with shellac (Fig. 9). 




Fig. 9. Fossil shells may be mounted on little columns of plaster 

Comparison with figures in books or with mu- 
seum specimens will make the identification of most 
fossils easy and the more you collect and study 
them the more fascinated you will become in these 
petrified plants and animals of past ages. 

Although most forms of life found as fossils are 
extinct to-day, yet others are identical with com- 
mon living species. Still others prove how one 
form of animal or plant has gadually developed 



FOSSILS 47 

from very different forms and such specimens are 
of the greatest interest and educational value. 
Birds with teeth and with long, fleshy, lizard-like, 
feathered tails are found in fossil form, as are also 
reptiles with many bird-like features', while among 
insects, plants, fish, and marine creatures there are 
countless forms which are true connecting links be- 
tween groups, which in their present day form are 
widely separated and bear little resemblance to one 
another. 



CHAPTER IV 

PLANTS AND VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 

AT first thought it may seem as if plants and 
vegetable products would be the simplest and 
easiest objects to collect. As a matter of fact, a 
great deal of care, skill, and patience is required to 
make a really good plant collection. The actual 
collecting is easy enough, for plants abound nearly 
everywhere and may be gathered with little or no 
trouble, but to preserve them, prepare them, classify 
them, and keep them free from injury or destruc- 
tion is far more difficult. 

Plants are so very numerous and botany em- 
braces such a wide field that it is scarcely advisable 
for the young collector to attempt making a general 
botanical collection. It is far wiser to take up one 
particular branch at a time and make this complete 
and systematic rather than to attempt to collect 
a variety of objects, all of which may be included 

under the general term of vegetable specimens. 

48 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 49 

Roughly the botanical specimens may be divided 
into plants, flowers, leaves, seeds, and woods. 

Each of these may be again subdivided, for the 
collector may specialize on a single group or divi- 
sion of any one. Thus, among the plants, we may 
form a collection devoted exclusively to grasses, 
ferns or some other group; we may confine our 
seed collection entirely to nuts, fruits, or some simi- 
lar line; or we may make distinct collections of 
woods and bark. 

Plants j Flowers, and Grasses 

By far the most abundant botanical specimens 
come under this general heading, and when prop- 
erly made and prepared, carefully labeled and well 
arranged, a collection of plants, grasses, or flowers 
is very interesting. 

Many of our plants are of commercial or medic- 
inal value and collections illustrating these char- 
acteristics are always instructive. Few people 
realize the large number of our common weeds 
which are used in medicine and a display of these 
will invariably arouse interest. 

Wherever possible you should strive to secure the 
entire plant for the collection, for a plant bearing 



50 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

leaves, flowers, and seeds, as well as showing the 
root and form of growth, will illustrate the species 
far better than if the various portions are collected 
and preserved separately (Fig. i). Of course 
many things are so large that this method is not 
practical, and in other cases the seeds, flowers, or 
leaves are never found together on one plant. The 
only appliances necessary in collecting plants are a 
tin case or box (the standard botanical collecting 
tins are best), a jacknife, a small trowel, and an old 
blank book or a portfolio. For preserving your 
specimens you will need a number of sheets of good, 
white, blotting paper, some old newspapers, and a 
letter-press or plant-press or some smooth boards 
and heavy weights. For mounting and preparing 
your collections, clean, white, cardboard or Bristol- 
board and glue, are required. 

You may collect plants at almost any season, but 
the best time is when they are fully grown and in 
bloom or in fruit. While carrying them home you 
should use care not to bruise, break, or injure them. 
Many things may be safely carried in the collecting 
box, but species which are fragile or which wilt 
quickly should be placed carefully between the sheets 
of your portfolio or blank book until you can prepare 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 



5i 



them for drying. To prepare the specimens it is 
merely necessary to arrange them on sheets of blot- 
ting paper, place the sheets under weights, or in 
a press, and keep them there until thoroughly 




Fig. 1 Fig. 2 

Fig. I. The entire plant should be gathered for the collection. 
Fig. 2. Pressed plants should be mounted by strips of paper 
pasted over them. 

dried. It will be necessary, however, to change the 
sheets of paper frequently, for otherwise the speci- 
mens may mold, mildew, or even decompose, and 
the final success of the work and the amount of 
natural color retained in the plants will depend very 



52 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

largely upon the attention you devote to carefully 
drying the plants and changing the papers. You 
may use special botanical paper for the purpose, but 
good blotting paper does just as well and even old 
newspapers will answer in most cases. Many 
species of plants and flowers will fade and become 
yellow and brown, no matter how carefully you 
dry them, but quite often such varieties may be per- 
fectly preserved if they are dried on a dish of very 
hot sand or in an oven, or if they are soaked in a 
solution of formaldehyde before they are dried or 
pressed. 

After the specimens are thoroughly dried they 
may be mounted upon white or tinted cards, either 
by fastening them in position with a little glue or 
by pasting little strips of paper across them as 
shown in Fig. 2. 

Great care should be taken to number and label 
the plants correctly for many plants are very diffi- 
cult to identify after they are dried and careless 
labeling makes any collection worthless. 

Grasses are treated exactly like other plants, but 
are even easier to preserve, and a good collection 
of grasses is very attractive, as many of the species 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 53 

are really beautiful in form, while a great many 
more are of commercial or industrial value. 

Quite frequently good photographs of growing 
plants or grasses add a great deal to the value of a 
collection and colored drawings of the blossoms or 
fruits, or hand-colored photographs, invariably add 
to the interest and attractiveness of the botanical 
collections. These photographs and drawings may 
be attached directly to the card on which the speci- 
men of the same species is mounted, or they may 
be numbered to correspond and kept separately. 
In the case of photographs of plants, or any other 
specimen, you should use black and white matt- 
surface prints and platinum paper, if possible. 
Glossy prints often reflect the light so that the pic- 
ture becomes confused and gold or silver papers 
will often fade quite rapidly, especially when ex- 
posed to the action of chemicals and insecticides 
which are always in evidence in collections of 
plants, insects, etc. 

Where it is desirable to illustrate some peculiar- 
ity of a plant — such as its method of seeding ( Fig. 
3), the various products made from it, or similar 
matters — it is an excellent plan to arrange the 




Fig. 3. Plants which have peculiar seeding habits should be prepared 

to show such habits 
. 54 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 55 

specimens in glass-covered boxes. The well known 
Riker mounts are the best for this purpose and are 
very cheap, but any boy can make mounts which 
will serve just as well. The mounts are merely 
shallow pasteboard boxes with glass covers and are 
filled with layers of smooth, soft cotton. The 
specimens are arranged upon this cotton; the glass 
cover pressed firmly into place and the whole sealed 
and bound together by a strip of gummed paper 
fastened around the edges where the cover joins the 
box. 

The boxes in which photographic dry plates are 
sold are very good for making these mounts, and 
old negatives, with the film cleaned off by the use 
of strong sal-soda and hot water, make excellent 
covers. 

Light-colored specimens should be placed on 
dark-colored cotton and dark-colored specimens on 
white cotton. As these mounts are very useful for 
preserving specimens of many kinds, every boy col- 
lector should have a supply on hand. There is no 
better way of preserving insects, plants, dried ma- 
rine specimens, delicate shells, and fossils and small 
minerals and crystals. 

A very interesting and curious group of plants 



56 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

are the fungi, more commonly and better known as 
toadstools and mushrooms. Many of these are 
very remarkable in form or are beautifully colored, 
but unfortunately most of them are exceedingly 
hard to preserve or prepare for collections. 

Many of the rather dry, woody species, which 
may be found growing on trees, stumps, and logs, 
are easy to preserve by merely drying them in the 
air but they should be thoroughly soaked in a solu- 
tion of formaldehyde in the first place as they 
usually contain the eggs or larvae of insects and, 
moreover, are attacked by numbers of household 
insect-pests. Even if this is done the tiny book-lice, 
weevils, ants, and buffalo bugs often ruin the fungi 
and the safest method is to keep the specimens in 
tight cases or boxes with camphor or naphthalene. 

Many of the softer fungi can only be preserved 
in alcohol or in formaldehyde solution, while still 
others may be dried by first soaking them in for- 
maldehyde and then drying them on hot sand or in 
an oven. A great many kinds cannot be properly 
preserved by any of these methods, and even when 
well preserved some species lose all their natural 
colors and beauty. Wax casts, made as directed 
for fruits, will often prove far more satisfactory 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 57 

than the real fungi, while photographs or colored 
drawings will often serve every purpose and will 
prove more interesting and attractive than the ac- 
tual specimens. 

If you do collect fungi be sure to handle them 
carefully, for if bruised or broken they turn dark 
colored and spoil very quickly. Only fresh, young 
specimens should be collected, for if they are old 
or have commenced to decay you cannot do any- 
thing with them. As soon as gathered they should 
either be dropped into jars of formaline or else 
wrapped carefully in fine tissue paper and cotton 
until you reach home. 

Although collecting and preparing plants and 
similar specimens is simple and easy, your work is 
by no means over when this has been accomplished. 
Pressed or preserved plants are very easily injured 
and numerous insect pests destroy them, unless pre- 
cautions are taken. Although they are not at- 
tacked by the clothes-moths, dermestes, and similar 
things, which play such havoc with animal matter, 
feathers, cloth, etc., yet they are very attractive to 
book-lice, roaches, minute beetles, weevils, and many 
other insect-pests. Soaking the fresh plants in 
formaline often helps guard against these insects, 



58 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

but to insure safety they must be kept in an atmos- 
phere redolent of camphor or naphthalene and must 
be frequently examined. 

Possibly your greatest trouble will be in properly 
identifying and classifying your plants. Almost 
any good botany will help you in this work and the 
many illustrated popular works on wild flowers and 
other plants will be found most useful. If you are 
really interested in plants you will find studying 
them and identifying them the most enjoyable part 
of the work and if you are not enough interested 
in plants to take the trouble and time necessary to 
classify and identify them you should not attempt 
to make the collection. 

Woods 

Of all these groups perhaps the collection of 
woods is the easiest to make, as well as the most 
instructive and interesting. Moreover, woods are 
readily preserved, they are not easily injured, and 
they are well adapted to exhibition and study pur- 
poses, which cannot be said of flowers, leaves or 
many other botanical specimens. 

As in the case of every collection, the value and 
interest of the wood collection depend very largely 




Plant Mounted to Show Habits of Flowering 

{See Chapter IV) 







5 — Various Steps in Cutting Wood Specimens 




6 — Specimens of Wood Finished 
iS.ee Chapter IV) 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 59 

upon the care with which the specimens are col- 
lected and prepared and the accuracy with which 
they are identified, classified, and labeled. 

There are many species of woods in nearly every 
locality and yet very few people can distinguish 
more than one or two varieties, even after they are 
cut and polished. Still fewer of us are able to 
identify the trees by their bark, forms of trunks, 
methods of branching, or by the fruits, seeds, or 
leaves, and even if we know the trees in summer we 
will often find it difficult to tell them apart in win- 
ter, after the leaves have fallen. For these reasons 
the wood collections are of real educational value, 
for if well arranged the specimens will illustrate 
the distinctive characters of the various trees far 
better than printed descriptions or illustrations in 
books. The collection should not only be arranged 
to show the natural characters of each bark, tree, 
and the grain of the wood, but it should also illus- 
trate the characteristics which adapt the various 
woods to certain uses. The wood collection may 
be made at any season, but it is just as well to col- 
lect most of the specimens during the winter when 
other things are hard or impossible to collect and 
thus have the warmer months free to devote to 



60 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

other objects. The only tools required in collect- 
ing woods are a small, sharp saw, and a hatchet or 
ax, but for preparing the specimens you will re- 
quire a plane, a chisel, sandpaper, shellac or var- 
nish and glue. 

The specimens need not be large, but very small 
specimens should be avoided and you should aim to 
secure medium sized pieces, say three or four inches 
in diameter and six or eight inches long and try to 
have all the specimens as nearly the same size as 
possible. 

You may cut the specimens from living trees — 
selecting straight, well-grown branches — or split- 
ting pieces from larger limbs or trunks, or you may 
obtain a large proportion of them from wood piles, 
saw mills, lumber yards, etc. 

Cut the piece selected about a foot in length, leav- 
ing the bark in place. Just as soon as the billet 
of wood is cut it should be marked with a pencil in 
order to identify it. The mark may be merely a 
number and a corresponding number in a note-book 
may be filled out with the name, locality, and date, 
or these various items may be written directly on 
the wood. The best way to do this is to chop or 
whittle away a smooth space on the wood and write 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 61 

on this with a carpenter's pencil (Fig. 4). The 
pieces of wood should be placed in a cool, dry spot 
to season and they should be turned over from time 
to time as they dry. Oftentimes the bark may be 
loose, or may warp or peel from the wood as it 
dries and when this occurs it should be secured in 
position by a piece of string or twine until you are 
ready to prepare the specimens for the collection 
when the bark should be glued in place. 

A very important matter in a wood collection is 
to show the natural bark and the character of the 
wood in various sections, and the best way to do 
this is as follows : When thoroughly dried saw off 
one end of the piece true and even and saw off the 
opposite end at an angle or diagonally. If you can 
obtain a miter-box this work will be greatly sim- 
plified and all the specimens may be sawed at ex- 
actly the same angle (Fig. 5A). The next step is 
to divide the piece of wood longitudinally through 
the center. This may be accomplished by sawing 
or splitting, but as wood does not always split true 
the former method is the better (Fig. 5B). The 
diagonally cut end and the split or sawed side 
should then be planed and sandpapered smooth and 
a small space should be planed away on the right 



62 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

hand side (Fig. 5c). The specimens will now ap- 
pear as in Fig. 5D, and will show the bark, a cross 
section, the grain from heart to sap-wood, and a 
quartered section in their natural, unfinished colors. 
In order to illustrate the appearance of the wood in 
a finished state a small portion at the base (the 
square end) and one-half of the diagonal end 
should be varnished, and the piece may then be 
mounted, labeled, and arranged in the case or cabi- 
net. There are various ways of mounting wood 
specimens, the simplest being to tack a piece of stiff 
cardboard to the base with a tack or small nail 
driven into the wood from the lower side of the 
card. The specimens should be arranged with the 
cut surface in front and the specimens should be 
grouped according to the relationship of the vari- 
ous trees. Thus all the pines should be placed to- 
gether, all the oaks in another group, the walnuts 
in another, and the fruit trees in still another. 
There will still remain a number which have no 
very closely related species, and these may be ar- 
ranged according to whether they are hard or soft 
woods. 

A neat label should be fastened to the mount 
of each piece with the name, locality, date, etc., as 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 63 

well as the size of the tree from which the speci- 
men was obtained and a note regarding the 
purposes for which the wood is ordinarily used 
(Fig. 6). 

This collection of pieces of wood alone will prove 
very interesting and instructive, but its value may 
be greatly increased by showing the leaves and 
seeds of the tree with the woods. A still greater 
interest and value may be added by the use of good 
photographs of the trees themselves. 

If you intend to show photographs you should 
try to select trees standing by themselves and you 
should have one picture showing the tree in sum- 
mer and another of exactly the same size and taken 
from the same spot showing the tree in winter 

(Fig. 7). 

Even if the pictures are not shown with the speci- 
mens they will be of value and a collection of such 
photographs is in itself very interesting. 

The seeds or nuts of most trees are very easy to 
preserve and simply require drying. Some, how- 
ever, will ripen or burst open after they are col- 
lected and dried and to prevent this they should be 
either boiled in water or soaked in strong alcohol 
or formaldehyde solution. The latter is the best 



64 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

method, for it preserves the seeds and also prevents 
insects from attacking and injuring them. 

When the nuts or seeds are contained in shells, 
pods, or burrs the complete covering containing 
the seeds should be preserved and shown as well as 
the seeds or nuts after they are removed. 

Many trees bear soft berries or fleshy fruits 
which shrink and shrivel up when dried and in or- 
der to exhibit these to advantage they must be pre- 
served in alcohol or formaldehyde, or wax casts 
must be made as described in connection with the 
fruit collections. 

Leaves 

The leaves may be real leaves, dried and pre- 
pared by pressing them between paper or blotters, 
or they may be solar prints or autographic prints. 
As dried leaves are very fragile and are easily in- 
jured the prints are preferable, and in most cases 
they show the true character of the leaves far better 
than the dried specimens. 

Solar prints (Fig. 8) are very easy to make and 
reproduce every vein, rib, and detail of the origi- 
nals with the greatest accuracy. 

The only appliances required to make these 



, 




7 — The Same Tree in Winter and in Summer 
{See Chapter IV) 




IO 



8 — Solar Print of Leaf. 9 — Photographs of Leaves. 10 — Lace of 

the Lace-Bark Tree 
(See Chapter IV) 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS . 65 

prints are a photographic printing frame, a glass to 
fit it, and the sensitized paper. The ordinary blue- 
print paper is excellent, but Solio or any other regu- 
lar printing-out paper will do very well. To make 
the print, place the leaf upon the glass of the print- 
ing frame, lay a piece of the paper over it, place 
a piece of thin cardboard over this and clamp the 
back of the frame in position and expose to bright 
sunlight. If blue-print paper is used expose un- 
til the paper around the leaf is very dark bronze 
and then remove and wash in cold water until the 
white portions of the print are clear and sharp and 
the exposed portions are rich blue. If Solio or 
other papers are used the printing should be very 
deep and the paper should be toned and fixed as 
usual. The exact length of time for the exposure 
must be determined by experiment and, moreover, 
it will vary with different leaves. Thick, fleshy 
leaves will require a much longer exposure than 
thin ones, but the idea is to expose until the sun- 
light has penetrated the thinner parts of the leaf, 
leaving only the ribs or veins pure white, as shown 
in the illustration. 

The autographic method of making leaf prints is 
very different and is in some ways much simpler. 



66 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

For this process you will require a rubber roller, 
such as is used in mounting photographs, some tube 
oil-colors or some printers' ink, and some .stiff, 
white paper or Bristol-board. To make the print 
place a fresh leaf upon a card or paper and brush 
it over smoothly and evenly with a coating of ink 
or paint. 

Be careful and do not put the material on too 
thickly, but be sure to cover every portion evenly. 
Lift the leaf carefully and place it, inked side down, 
on a clean sheet of card or paper, cover it with a 
piece of soft paper, hold the stem in position with 
one finger pressed upon it over the covering paper 
and run the rubber roller firmly over the whole. 
The covering paper should then be carefully re- 
moved and the leaf lifted by the stem and you will 
then find that a perfect and beautiful imprint of the 
leaf has been transferred to the card beneath. If 
you have a letter copying-press you may secure 
even more perfect autographs of the leaves by plac- 
ing the inked leaves in the press and screwing it 
down tightly. Care must be taken to have the leaf 
upon a level surface, with a pad of old newspapers 
or a thick magazine beneath. You may have to 
make several trials before you acquire the knack 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 67 

of making a good clear impression without smudg- 
ing the print when removing the cover paper and 
leaf. 

These autographic prints may be made in any de- 
sired color and they are particularly attractive 
when printed with deep green ink as in this color 
they closely resemble the real leaves. Moreover, 
dead or dried leaves may be perfectly reproduced 
by these methods and oftentimes these show the 
veins and details better than the fresh green leaves. 
The boy who posseses a camera may also make pho- 
tographs which will serve every purpose for the 
collection (Fig. 9). Arrange the leaves on a piece 
of clean glass, support this some distance above a 
perfectly white background, and place the camera 
vertically above them. In this way all shadows 
will be avoided and excellent, even lighting may be 
obtained. Another method, which also gives ex- 
cellent results is to place the leaves on a white card 
in a printing frame with a glass cover. This ob- 
viates the necessity of placing the camera verti- 
cally, but it is sometimes difficult to prevent the re- 
flections on the glass from showing in the photo- 
graph. Moreover, thick, fleshy leaves, or those 
with coarse stems, will throw quite distinct shadows 



68 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

which will confuse the real outlines of the leaves. 
In collecting the leaves, whether to exhibit dried, 
to photograph, or for solar or autographic print- 
ing, you should secure those of medium size and 
typical form. Many plants have leaves of several 
distinct forms and in such cases each form should 
be shown. Grapevines, mulberry trees, and sassa- 
fras are notable examples of this class of plants, 
and oftentimes the leaves taken from different por- 
tions of the same plant or tree will be so distinct 
that you would never suspect they were of the same 
species. When the woods, leaves, and fruits are. 
all ready they may be mounted together on pieces 
of stiff card or on thin wooden stands and a neat 
label should then be fastened to the mount. The 
exact form or wording of the label may be varied 
to suit your own taste, but the general form should 
be about as follows : 



No Locality 

Name- 

Found in. 

Height Diam Circum. 

Qualities of timber 

Used for _ . 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 69 

If photographs of the trees are to be shown with 
the specimens they may be placed behind the 
mounted woods. Sometimes trees have such dis- 
tinctive flowers that they are worthy of being 
shown with the wood specimens. Flowers, espe- 
cially those of trees, are very difficult to preserve 
and the best method of showing them is to use good 
photographs or drawings. If you have but little 
space to devote to the wood collection you may ex- 
hibit the woods and seeds only and arrange the pho- 
tographs, prints, etc., in an album with each species 
numbered to correspond with the wood specimens. 

You will find that collecting woods will prove 
very interesting work and by collecting the fruits, 
flowers, and leaves also you will soon learn to rec- 
ognize all the native trees by any one of their vari- 
ous parts as well as by their form. Many of the 
commonest trees have very interesting habits, meth- 
ods of growth, and peculiar properties, which are 
known to but few people. Strange as are many of 
the native trees, you will find some of the foreign 
species even more remarkable, and after you have 
secured a good collection of native woods you can 
look farther afield and obtain specimens by ex- 
changing with other collectors. 



70 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

For example, there is the silk-bark tree of South 
America. The inner bark of this tree is as soft, 
white, and delicate as real lace and in the countries 
where it occurs it is used for various household 
purposes in place of cloth. In order to secure the 
tree-lace the branch is cut or broken off, the outer' 
bark removed and the inner bark unrolled. Sheets 
thus obtained are frequently over a yard square 
and are used by the South American girls and 
women as veils, handkerchiefs, napkins, mosquito- 
netting, portieres, sheets, and clothing. The bark 
appears thin, delicate, and fragile, but in reality it 
is very tough and strong, and when braided or 
twisted it is used for twine, rope, hammocks, har- 
ness, etc. Oftentimes the natives strip away a por- 
tion of the outer bark, unroll the lace-bark, and 
braid it together, and in this way make very durable 
and cheap whips. In fact, the lace-bark is a most 
useful natural product and in some places sus- 
pension bridges over rushing mountain torrents are 
made entirely of ropes formed by twisting and 
braiding this cloth-like bark. So common and 
cheap is the natural lace that garments made of it 
are seldom washed, for the natives find it easier to 
secure a fresh supply from some convenient tree 




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VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 71 

than to bother laundering that which has become 
soiled. A specimen of this strange tree should be 
in every wood collection for it is one of nature's 
marvels (Fig. 10). Many other foreign woods 
are of great interest and it is a good plan to have 
specimens of such well-known woods as mahogany, 
ebony, rosewood, etc., if only for comparison with 
native varieties. If the boy collector is fortunate 
enough to travel to foreign lands he may obtain 
many interesting specimens and there is no class 
of specimens which is easier to collect and carry 
home than the woods, leaves, and seeds of trees. 
Even if you do not travel, there is little difficulty 
in obtaining a very good collection of foreign woods 
with the leaves of the trees. The wood itself can 
readily be obtained from cabinet makers, furniture, 
or piano factories or similar places, and a botanical 
garden will usually furnish the leaves. As dead or 
fallen leaves are just as satisfactory as green ones 
there is no objection to gathering them and nearly 
every botanical garden has specimens of the more 
important cabinet and dye wood trees, as well as 
many of the tropical fruit trees, medicinal trees and 
plants, and other interesting botanical specimens. 



?2 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

Casting Fruits 

A very attractive and interesting portion of the 
botanical collection is the fruit exhibit. Although 
fruits themselves are almost impossible to preserve 
satisfactorily, it is an easy matter to make wax re- 
productions which serve every purpose and are in- 
distinguishable from the real fruits when carefully 
made. Such common and well-known things as 
apples, pears, peaches, etc., are scarcely worth 
bothering with unless you wish to show them in 
connection with the woods, but many of the wild 
fruits, berries, and foreign fruits are so important, 
so odd, or so handsome, that they are worthy of a 
position in your collection. 

You will find making casts of fruits and other 
objects very interesting work and as molding and 
casting is a very useful art and is frequently used 
in making collections, I advise every boy to learn 
how to cast and mold properly. There is nothing 
much simpler to start on than fruits, and few ob- 
jects will give better results. 

The materials required for making the casts are 
plaster-of-Paris — the fine dental grade is the best — 
some paraffin, beeswax, Japanese wax, or bay- 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 73 

berry wax and spermaceti, as well as some common 
modeling or potters' clay and some tube oil-colors 
or dry, powdered colors. For your first attempts 
at casting select some round, or nearly round, fruit 
with a smooth surface, such as an apple, pear, or 
orange. Mix up a quantity of clay with water un- 
til it is soft enough to work easily, but does not ad- 
here to your hands or other objects — about the con- 
sistency of good putty is right — and in fact putty 
may be used in place of the clay if preferred. 
Some of the patent modeling compounds such as 
"Plasticene" are even better than clay, but the lat- 
ter is cheap, it can be obtained anywhere, and it 
will serve every purpose. 

Clean the fruit to be cast and embed it in a good 
bed of clay or similar material until the clay ex- 
tends up to the thickest portion of the fruit as 
shown in Fig. 11. In accomplishing this use great 
care, for if the clay bed extends beyond the great- 
est diameter, or does not reach to it you will be un- 
able to make a satisfactory mold or cast. 

Wipe off any particles of clay or dirt which may 
have adhered to the portion of the fruit left ex- 
posed and then build a little wall or fence of clay 
around the bed a short distance from the fruit and 



74 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

a trifle higher than the uppermost portion of the 
fruit. 

The next step is to mix the plaster-of-Paris with 
water, stirring it constantly and adding plaster, 
until the mixture is smooth and free from lumps 
and is about as thick as good cream. 

With an old spoon, or a ladle, dip out the plaster 
and pour it over the fruit until every portion is 
covered and the plaster completely fills the space 
between the fruit and the surrounding walls of 
clay. 

The plaster will set quite rapidly and as soon as 
it commences to harden pile more on top of the 
mass until quite a little mound is formed above 
the fruit (Fig. 12). Before doing this, jar the 
mold several times by striking the table or other 
object upon which it rests in order to cause the 
plaster to settle into all the crevices and to elimi- 
nate air bubbles which might otherwise form. 

Leave the mold until thoroughly hard and then 
turn it upside down and pull away the clay base 
and wall. You will then find that your fruit is 
embedded in a white plaster mass with one-half of 
the fruit exposed as in Fig. 13. Set this evenly and 
securely in a mass of clay and with a small-bladed 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 



75 




Fig. ii 




Fig. 12 




Fig. is 

Fig. ii. The fruit set in clay bed. Fig. 12. Fruit in clay bed cov- 
ered with plaster. Fig. 13. First half of mold with clay bed 
removed. Fig. 14. First half of mold showing notches cut in 
sides. Fig. 15. First half of mold ready to make second half 



76 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

knife cut two or three notches around the edges of 
the plaster, with a larger and deeper notch extend- 
ing from the edge of the plaster to the fruit (Fig. 
14). Form a little conical roll of clay and place 
this in the large notch so that just one-half extends 
above the edge of the plaster as shown in Fig. 15, 
and then give all portions of the plaster a coat of 
paraffin (dissolved in gasolene), thin shellac, 
neat's-foot oil, linseed oil, or thin vaseline or other 
grease; but taking care not to smear the grease or 
other substance upon the surface of the fruit. 
With the clay, or modeling material, construct a 
wall all around the edges of the plaster and ex- 
tending above the highest, exposed part of the fruit 
and mix some fresh plaster and fill up the space 
and pile plaster above the fruit as you did in form- 
ing the first half of the mold. When the plaster 
has thoroughly hardened, which should not take 
more than an hour or two, take of! the clay wall and 
pull gently on the two halves of the mold. If you 
have used care and have followed my directions 
the two parts will readily separate, leaving the 
fruit in one of the halves of the mold. Wiggle 
and pull the fruit gently until it slips from the plas- 
ter matrix, extract the cone of clay in the notch and 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 77 

carefully remove any chips of plaster, bits of clay, 
or other foreign matter from the two portions of 
the mold. Oftentimes you will find little holes or 
imperfections on the inside of the mold and these 
must be very carefully filled with tiny pellets of 
clay pushed into them with the end of a soft 
wooden stick or toothpick. Now fit the two halves 
of the mold together — which is easily accomplished 
by matching the notches and the projections on the 
two portions — and secure them in position by wrap- 
ping string, twine or thread about them. 

You are now ready to make the wax cast and the 
first step in doing this is to mix the several kinds 
of wax together in the proper proportions. The 
best way to do this is to melt together equal quan- 
tities (by weight) of hard parafnn and beeswax, 
and add a little Japanese wax and some spermaceti 
or bayberry tallow, or both. Stir the mixture 
thoroughly and while still hot pour a little on a 
piece of hardened plaster. When this is cool and 
hard try to peel it from the plaster. If it pulls 
away readily and is tough, hard, but not brittle, 
the mixture is right. If, on the other hand, it 
sticks to the plaster or is soft, sticky, or flexible, 
more Japanese wax and bayberry wax must be 



78 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

added. If it breaks and appears brittle or cracky, 
add more beeswax and paraffin. If hard and tough, 
but sticky, add paraffin only. Each of the various 
kinds of wax has certain properties and once you 
learn these you will be able to determine just which 
the mixture lacks. Beeswax makes it tough, but 
sticky ; paraffin prevents the wax from sticking but 
makes it flexible and soft; Japanese wax makes it 
hard and gives it a body, besides causing it to take 
a very fine impression ; bayberry wax also adds body 
and hardness but is rather brittle, while spermaceti 
causes the mixture to harden evenly and rapidly 
and prevents the wax from shrinking as it cools. 

When the mixture is right, stir some powdered 
color, or a little oil color, into the wax and drop a 
little of the mixture on a piece of white paper or 
plaster. The color used will depend upon the fruit 
you are molding. For oranges use orange-chrome 
or chrome-yellow, for green fruits chrome-green, 
for red fruits carmine, vermilion, scarlet, etc., and 
for fruits which have two or more colors use the 
color which predominates and after the cast is fin- 
ished the other tints may be added by hand. 

When the wax is mixed and colored satisfac- 
torily, pour it into the conical opening in the mold 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 79 

until the latter is about three-fourths full. Plug 
the hole with a piece of soft clay and grasping the 
wax-filled mold in your hands commence turning 
and twisting it about in every direction. Continue 
to keep the mold in constant motion until the wax 
remaining in the receptacle in which it was melted 
has commenced to harden. When this has har- 
dened you may feel sure that the smaller quantity 
in the mold is thoroughly hard and you should 
then drop the entire mold into cold water, and cut 
through the threads or strings which bind the two 
halves together. After a half-hour or so, grasp 
the two halves of the mold and wiggle them, gently 
back and forth until a slight looseness is noticed. 
Then place the mold again under water, continuing 
to work gently at the mold until one-half or the 
other comes away, leaving the wax cast of the fruit 
exposed for half its diameter. This wax cast is 
hollow and very fragile and you must be very 
gentle and careful if you are to remove it from its 
matrix without injury. By keeping it submerged 
in cold water and by pushing and working at it 
carefully the cast will at last come free of the plas- 
ter and you will have a perfect wax duplicate of 
the original fruit. Here and there you will find 



80 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

little "fins" of wax on the cast and these must be 
carefully trimmed off with a sharp knife. There 
are usually a number of small bubble-holes and 
other imperfections in these casts and when the 
wax has been dried and freed from water on a soft 
cloth these various defects must be filled by heating 
a small knife-blade, dipping it in some of the re- 
maining wax and molding the material into the 
holes. If the wax cast requires further coloring 
it can be easily done by rubbing on a little tube 
oil-color, or a little dry color mixed with turpentine, 
with a soft brush or a tuft of cotton. By using a 
little color at a time and rubbing it in carefully you 
will find that you can blend the tints perfectly and 
give a very natural effect to the wax cast. 

Of course your first attempt may be a dismal 
failure. The wax may adhere so firmly to the mold 
that you cannot separate the two halves without 
breaking the wax cast, or one-half may come away 
and yet leave the wax so firmly attached to the 
other half that you cannot remove it without in- 
jury. Then again you may find that one side of 
the wax cast is thick and the other side as thin as 
paper or there may be concave or shrunken places 
on the cast. Sometimes, too, you'll find that the 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 81 

wax has formed uneven layers and spots or is cov- 
ered with holes and imperfections. Each of these 
troubles is due to some definite cause and each may 
be easily overcome. The wax seldom sticks to a 
new mold, but if the plaster becomes thoroughly 
dried out before the wax is poured in, or if an old 
mold is used, the wax frequently adheres to the 
plaster and ruins the mold. This can be avoided 
by soaking the plaster molds in water before pour- 
ing in the wax or by using them before the plaster 
has become bone dry. If one-half of the mold 
comes off easily and the other side sticks fast you 
may be sure that the fault lies in the mold. If care 
has not been used in making the dividing line be- 
tween the two portions of the mold exactly at the 
widest part of the fruit the cast will not come free 
and if there are indentations or irregularities on the 
fruit the same trouble will result. If one side of 
the cast is thick and the other thin you may feel 
sure that you did not keep the mold in constant 
motion or else that you left the wax-filled mold 
standing too long before you commenced to move it 
about. If there are concave or shrunken spots on 
the cast it is due to the fact that too little wax was 
poured in. The irregular layers or lines, or the 



82 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

indentations and imperfect spots, are caused by the 
wax being too cold when poured, or to the mold be- 
ing too cold or too wet. In any case the remedy 
is obvious and all you have to do is to remelt the 
wax and try again, although if the wax has stuck 
to the plaster and cannot be peeled off a new mold 
must be made. 

Although it is a very simple matter to make 
molds and casts of regular, almost-round fruits, 
as above described, you will find that it is much 
more difficult to cast various other objects which 
are irregular in form. As many of these are very 
interesting and as the work of making casts is 
really fascinating, the young collector should learn 
to cast objects of various forms after he has mas- 
tered the principles of molding the simpler things 
such as oranges or apples. Not only fruits, but 
various animals, fishes, fossils, and countless other 
objects may be cast in wax, metal, plaster, etc., and 
the method of making the molds is similar in every 
case. The simple mold in two halves is only 
adapted to objects with a very regular outline and 
which present almost perfect ovals or circles in 
cross section. 

In order that the mold may come away from the 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 83 

object freely each portion must have a larger open- 
ing at the bottom than at the top and this can only 
be accomplished with two pieces when the object 
molded is circular or oval. If there are various 
indentations, angles, or irregularities on the object, 
the mold must be planned in such a way that each 
piece covers only a segment of a circle or oval. 
This may be better understood by referring to the 
illustrations. In Fig. 16 a section through an 
apple or orange is shown and you can readily see 
that if this is enclosed in a mold made in two pieces 
each half will come away easily as in Fig. 17. In 
Fig. 18 a section of a muskmelon is represented and 
you can see that in this case a mold made in two 
parts could not be withdrawn, owing to the pro- 
jecting ribs on the fruit as shown in Fig 19. In 
order to overcome this trouble we must make a 
mold in several sections as shown in Fig. 20 or else 
we must cast the melon "end on" as shown in Fig. 
21, in which position a two part mold will answer. 
Such projections or irregularities are known as 
"undercuts" and the whole secret in making good 
plaster molds of objects of any sort lies in planning 
the molds so that there are no undercuts. Not in- 
frequently a mold is made in a dozen or more sep- 



84 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

arate pieces and even the common apple will be 
much easier to cast in a three-piece mold than in 
one of two pieces, for apples, oranges, or pears often 
have undercuts which must be avoided. In the case 




Fig. 16 




Fig. 17 




Fig. 19 



Fig. 21 



Fig. 16. Section of a fruit which can be cast in two-piece mold. 
Fig. 17. Section of two-piece mold and fruit. Fig. 18. Section 
of fruit which requires mold in several parts. Fig. 19. Section 
of a two-piece mold on irregular fruit showing undercuts. 
Fig. 20. A mold of an irregular fruit made in several pieces. 
Fig. 21. How to cast an irregular fruit end on 



of the apple or orange the two-piece mold made with 
the fruit vertically will do very well, but if we wish 
to cast a pear we will find a three-piece mold neces- 
sary to obtain good results. In this case the pear 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 



85 



should be molded by placing it side down on the 
clay bed, but before pouring the plaster over it a 
space must be built up at the flower end of the fruit 
as shown in Fig. 22. After the first half of the 




Fig. 24 




Fig. 23 




Fig. 25 



Fig. 22. The first step in making a three-piece mold. Fig. 23. 
Next operation in making the mold. Fig. 24. The mold com- 
plete. Fig. 25. Fruit ready to mold in gelatine 

mold is made and the clay bed has been removed 
more clay should be built up at the end of the pear 
as shown in Fig. 23 and the second half of the 
mold should be made as already described. After 
this is hard, and before removing the pear, the clay 



86 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

at the end should be carefully taken out and the 
space rilled with plaster (after first greasing the 
plaster mold). Then when all is hard, the two 
main halves may be separated and the third piece 
drawn from the pear as shown in Fig. 24, thus over- 
coming the troublesome undercut at the end of the 
fruit. 

It is in thus planning the arrangement and num- 
ber of pieces in each mold that real skill in casting 
lies and the only way to learn just how to make 
casts of various objects is to use common sense and 
judgment, and experiment until you have mastered 
the art. 

Many very irregular objects may, however, be 
cast without the trouble of making molds in several 
pieces. This is accomplished by using glue or 
gelatine in place of plaster in making the molds. 
The object to be cast by this process is first rubbed 
with sweet oil and is placed in position by means of 
fine wires or pins or even little pillars of clay (Fig. 
25). A wall of clay is then built around it and 
melted gelatine or glue is poured over the whole. 
When the gelatine is hard a slit is made, extending 
from the surface of the mold to the object within, 
and through this the latter is pulled. An opening 



VEGETABLE SPECIMENS 87 

is made, through which to pour the material for the 
cast, the gelatine mold is tied together or clamped 
in a plaster form molded about it and the plaster 
or other material is then poured into the mold. 
The flexibility of the gelatine permits the removal 
of the original object as well as the finished cast, 
regardless of undercuts, but the process has many 
disadvantages. In the first place it is a rather 
hard matter to combine the glue or gelatine and 
glycerin in just the right proportions to form a 
tough, flexible, and clean-cut mold, and in the sec- 
ond case gelatine molds are not adapted to casting 
in wax or any other hot material. Plaster-of- 
Paris is practically the only material which can be 
used in making the casts and this is far less satis- 
factory than wax for many purposes. Moreover, 
glue molds can only be used a few times and do not 
keep indefinitely and taken as a whole they are not 
to be recommended for amateurs' use if really good 
results are desired. 



CHAPTER V 

INSECTS 

OF all groups of the animal kingdom probably 
none is of more importance to mankind or 
has a greater influence upon our lives than the in- 
sects. Among the vast hordes of insect life we 
find some of our worst enemies and many of our 
best friends. Enormous industries, great factories, 
and countless mercantile establishments would be 
impossible were it not for the humble silk- worm; 
the fig orchards of the world would be unprofitable 
without the aid of a tiny fly; and the wonderful 
fruits of California would have been destroyed, 
had not man sought the help of a little beetle. 

On the other hand tremendous areas of growing 
crops and countless millions of dollars' worth of 
agricultural products have been devastated and de- 
stroyed by insects. Famines and pestilence have 
followed in the wake of insect-pests and more hu-« 
man beings are annually killed by insects than by 
poisonous serpents or wild beasts. Indeed, of such 



INSECTS 89 

tremendous importance are these despised crea- 
tures that it is doubtful if the human race could 
exist without them, for the production of seeds by 
plants depends largely upon insects which carry the 
pollen from one flower to another. 

The incalculable importance of insects makes in- 
sect collections both interesting and valuable, and 
until you actually begin to study and collect them 
you cannot realize how many kinds are found in 
one locality or how fascinating are their habits and 
how beautiful or remarkable their colors and forms. 

While thousands of species of insects have been 
classified and named and the habits of immense 
numbers are well known, yet new species are being 
discovered constantly and their wonderful habits 
and strange life-histories are being studied and de- 
scribed by entomologists. 

For these reasons insects possess a peculiar fas- 
cination, especially for boys, for you never know 
when you may find a new species or may learn some 
unexpected and unknown habit which will prove of 
immense benefit to the world. 

Insects are easy to collect and preserve, but in 
order to collect them successfully you must know 
something of their haunts and habits and must use 



90 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

a great deal of patience, perseverance, and care. 
Insects of one kind or another are to be found 
nearly everywhere and at all seasons of the year, 
and the ardent insect collector must ever keep on 
the alert to discover specimens to add to his collec- 
tion. It is during the warm spring and summer 
months that insect life is most in evidence, how- 
ever, and to the interest and enthusiasm of collect- 
ing is added the healthy, enjoyable life in green 
fields and shady woodlands. 

Each season and each locality has its particular 
insects and oftentimes these are in evidence for a 
very short time. Many insects have a very brief 
life of but a few days or hours, while others live 
for months or even years. If you are to have any- 
thing like a complete collection you must take the 
specimens as you find them and must be prepared 
at all times and in all places. Insects are so numer- 
ous, however, that it is practically impossible for a 
boy to make a general collection embracing all the 
groups, and it is a far wiser plan to confine your 
collection to one particular group, or to a few 
groups, and when these are fairly complete to com- 
mence on another. But while collecting one class 
of insects you should not pass by others that cross 



INSECTS 91 

your path. If you are collecting butterflies and 
have a chance to collect a fine moth or beetle, secure 
it by all means — like as not you may never see a 
specimen of the sort again, for insects, like many 
other wild things, have a most exasperating habit 
of being common when you don't want them and 
then becoming suddenly rare when you try to ob- 
tain them. Moreover, many insects fairly swarm 
at times and then disappear entirely for long pe- 
riods. Many other species require certain definite 
periods of time in which to develop and it may be 
years after one appearance before you again see 
them. So too, at certain times, you will find it 
easier to secure some forms of insect life than 
others. Thus, in the early spring, butterflies and 
moths are scarce, but flies, wasps, bees, and many 
beetles are very common. Later on these will be- 
come hard to find and the host of butterflies and 
moths will make their appearance, while still later 
in the autumn an entirely new array of insect-forms 
will supplant the midsummer species. 

There are many methods of collecting insects. 
You may capture them in their native haunts by 
various methods; you may secure the larvae and 
raise them to maturity in confinement, or you may 



92 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

breed the specimens and preserve all their various 
stages. 

The best way is to combine all the various 
methods as some may be adapted to one group or 
species and not to another. As a rule, flies, bees, 
wasps, beetles, etc., are easiest to collect in their 
adult form and in their native haunts, while many 
moths and butterflies are easier to obtain by rear- 
ing them from the caterpillars, cocoons, or pupae. 
But in each and every case there are certain species 
which it is almost impossible to rear, while others 
are seldom or ever secured unless they are raised 
in confinement. 

Whatever branch of insect-life you decide to 
collect you will require practically the same ap- 
pliances and tools and these should be on hand and 
ready for use before you commence to collect at all. 

For collecting your specimens you will require 
a good net, a trowel, a strong knife, a pair of fine 
forceps, some empty tin boxes, a tin pail or a tin 
box with perforated top, a few small bottles of al- 
cohol or formaldehyde solution, a bottle of benzine 
or gasolene, cyanide bottles and a quantity of rather 
stiff, smooth paper. 

The form and material of the net will depend 



INSECTS 93 

mainly upon the class of insects you decide to col- 
lect. For butterflies, moths, flies, bees, and similar 
flying things a net of muslin, bobbinet, or even 
strong mosquito-netting will answer, whereas if 
you are to confine yourself to beetles, bugs, grass- 
hoppers, and other creatures which live in brush, 
grass and among plants you should make the net 
of stout cheesecloth or cotton drill. 

The exact form of the net is of no great im- 
portance, but a conical shape is preferable for but- 
terfly collecting, while a square-bottomed shape is 
better for securing the smaller insects among plant 
growths (Fig. i). These nets may be purchased 
ready-made, but you can make them yourself just 
as well, or you can get your mother or sister or the 
seamstress to make them. The size is an important 
matter, for a net which is too small is almost worth- 
less and one too large is a nuisance. The best size 
is about ten inches in diameter and eighteen inches 
deep. The seams should be neat and smooth and 
around the open end there should be a hem of 
heavier cloth, or of the same cloth doubled over. 
The ring or hoop may be of iron or brass, but if 
iron is used it should be tinned or galvanized to pre- 
vent it from rusting. Brass rod or heavy galvan- 



94 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 




Cj+nieCe 



Fig. 4 




Le*d 




^erraie-^ 



FlG. 2 



Fig. 3 





Fig. i 

Fig. i. Forms of insect nets. Fig. 2. How the hoop is made. 
Fig. 3. How the hoop is fastened in the ferrule. Fig. 4. De- 
tails of the cyanide bottle 



INSECTS 95 

ized telegraph wire will do very well for the thin 
butterfly net, but for the stouter net a stiff, strong, 
iron or steel hoop must be made. The wire should 
be bent into the form shown in (Fig. 2), with the 
two ends bound together with fine wire. A brass 
or iron ferrule should then be half-filled with dry 
sand, the ends of the hoop inserted in the ferrule 
and melted lead or solder should be poured in around 
it (Fig. 3). As soon as the metal hardens the net 
may be fastened to the hoop, a handle fitted to the 
ferrule, and the net will be ready for use. 

The cyanide bottles may be purchased already 
prepared and this is the safest and best method of 
obtaining them, for cyanide of potassium is a deadly 
poison and is dangerous to have about or to handle. 
After the bottles are once prepared there is no 
danger, however, unless you break a bottle or are 
criminally careless and sniff at the contents. If 
you live in a place where cyanide bottles cannot be 
bought ready to use you can easily make them, but 
you should be very careful to buy only enough 
cyanide for the purpose and to use every speck of it 
in the bottles. A strong, wide-mouthed bottle is 
the best form and in this a thin layer of cotton 
should be placed. Scatter about an ounce of 



96 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

cyanide over this cotton (using the lump form), 
place a little more cotton over the cyanide and then 
pour some plaster-of-Paris and water (mixed as 
directed for making molds) over the cotton for a 
depth of at least half an inch (Fig. 4). As soon 
as the plaster has hardened the bottle is ready for 
use, but it should be kept tightly corked at all times 
when not in use for the fumes are exceedingly 
poisonous and the cyanide will rapidly lose its 
strength if the bottle is left open. 

Insects dropped into a cyanide bottle are killed 
painlessly and almost instantly and there is no bet- 
ter or more humane method of killing such things as 
beetles, bugs, flies, bees, wasps, grasshoppers and 
similar insects. Moths and butterflies should not, 
however, be placed in the bottles, for they will often 
be rubbed or injured and it is difficult to remove 
them without ruining them as specimens. For kill- 
ing moths and butterflies, benzine or gasolene 
should be used and if the collector is very young, 
or if your parents consider cyanide bottles too dan- 
gerous, you may use gasolene or benzine for flies, 
wasps, and similar things and drop beetles and other 
hard-shelled insects into bottles of strong (50 per- 
cent.) alcohol or fairly strong formaldehyde solu- 



INSECTS 97 

tion. If the insects are left too long in these solu- 
tions they will become hard and brittle and will lose 
their colors, but if removed very soon and mounted 
they will not fade or be otherwise injured. When 
collecting beetles, and many other insects, as well 
as cocoons or pupae, the small tin boxes are very 
useful and if you can obtain an assortment of vari- 
ous sizes, so that one fits within another when not 
in use, you will save a lot of space and trouble when 
carrying them about. For carrying live larvae, or 
other living insects, a roomy box with perforated 
cover is used, or if preferred you may use a wide- 
mouthed jar with mosquito-netting tied over the 
opening. The pieces of smooth paper may seem 
very unimportant, but in reality they are essential 
to the collector of moths and butterflies. The 
papers should be of assorted sizes and should be 
folded and creased as shown in Fig. 5. They can 
be easily carried, either in a stout manilla envelope, 
in a blank book, or in boxes and take up little space. 
Practically the only satisfactory method of carry- 
ing butterflies and moths is in these folded papers 
and you should always have plenty of them on 
hand. To use the papers the specimen is placed 
within, as shown in Fig. 6, and the edges folded 



98 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 



^ 



J'-J^eC 



N ^, 



'-<= 



$:f*j*_ 



Fig. 5 



A 



a 1 




Fig. 6 




Fig. 9 

Fig. 5. Insect paper showing where it is to be folded. Fig. 6. In- 
sect placed in paper ready to fold. Fig. 7. Insect in folded pa- 
per. Fig. 8. End piece of spreading board. Fig. 9. How the 
cork is fastened to spreading board 



INSECTS 99 

down as in Fig. 7, and thus enclosed the insect may 
be quite carelessly handled and a large number of 
the papers, containing specimens, may be packed in 
a very small space. The best way of carrying them 
is to place them one on top of another in boxes and 
to prevent them shaking about pack a little soft cot- 
ton over them. As the box fills up the cotton may 
be removed gradually and when the box is com- 
pletely filled with specimens the cotton may be taken 
out entirely and placed with the empty papers until 
required for another box. For preparing and pre- 
serving your insect specimens you will require 
boxes, cases, or cabinets, mounting and spreading 
boards, insect pins, a pair of fine scissors, forceps, 
needles, and a supply of Bristol board or old visit- 
ing cards. Insect pins must be purchased from 
dealers for ordinary pins will not answer for this 
purpose. The needles should be inserted in small 
wooden handles with the points projecting and the 
mounting-boards may be either purchased ready- 
made or they may be made from odds and ends 
which you can find around the house. They con- 
sist merely of two smooth boards fastened close to- 
gether to end pieces formed as in Fig. 8, and with 



ioo THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

a strip of cork along the bottom over the crevice 
between the boards as in Fig. 9. 

If you cannot obtain cork in strips you may use 
sections cut from old bottle-corks or even cor- 
rugated pasteboard, but the sheet cork is far better 
and is very cheap. 

You should have several of these boards of vari- 




Fig. 10. A caterpillar breeding cage 



ous widths on hand, the largest being a trifle wider 
than the width across the wings of the largest in- 
sects and the smallest an inch or two across and 
with a very narrow opening between the boards. 
The common manicurist's, or cuticle, scissors will 
serve very well, but any fine scissors will do for 
these instruments. There should be two pairs of 



INSECTS 101 

forceps — one straight and one curved — and a small, 
slender-nosed pair of pliers will also prove useful. 
The old cards, or the Bristol board, is useful and 
necessary and is almost always available in any 
household. For the cases you may use regular in- 
sect cabinets, or cases of drawers in which thread is 
sold. Any tight, glass-covered box or drawer will 
answer, but the bottom should always be provided 
with cork in which to stick the pins on which the 
insects are mounted. Sheet cork is the best 
material, but sections of bottle-corks, corrugated 
pasteboard or even strips or sections of corn-stalk 
pith will do very well at a pinch and I have known 
collectors who preferred thin sections cut from 
poplar or cotton-wood trees. The very best kind 
of cases are the Riker insect mounts. These are 
pasteboard boxes with glass covers and filled with 
many thin layers of smooth, soft cotton. The in- 
sect to be preserved is placed (after being mounted 
and dried) upon the cotton and the cover is then 
pressed firmly into place and secured by binding the 
edges with gummed paper. These are moth-proof, 
neat, and occupy little space and by their use you 
are able to examine each individual insect whenever 
you wish. Riker mounts are not expensive and 



102 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

any young collector may easily make such mounts 
from old dry-plate or other boxes and old glass 
negatives or window-glass. 

In any case you must be sure to place some in- 
secticide in the case or box with the specimens, for 
even if the case itself is moth-proof there may be 
eggs or young larvae of museum pests in the speci- 
mens and these will soon increase in number and 
work havoc with your collections. 

Naphthalene flakes, camphor, bisulphide of car- 
bon, and solid formaldehyde are all excellent for 
this purpose but the cheapest and most convenient 
is the naphthalene. In addition to these things you 
must have plenty of labels on hand, for an insect 
improperly or carelessly labeled, or without a label, 
is of little value in a collection. The smallest in- 
sects may be merely numbered and the names, local- 
ities, etc., may be written in a book or catalogue 
with corresponding numbers. Where insects are 
kept in individual cases or mounts the label 
may be placed on the side or bottom of the container 
or numbers only may be used, as for small things. 
Most insects should be provided with a neat, small 
label on the pin which supports the specimen and 
in every case a number as well as the label should be 



INSECTS 103 

provided and the specimens should be carefully 
catalogued by number, as labels will sometimes be- 
come illegible or destroyed. 

While on the subject of labeling let me caution 
all collectors to write their labels in waterproof or 
indelible ink (Higgin's waterproof ink is as good as 
any), and never in pencil. Many a rare or valuable 
specimen has been lost or rendered of no scientific 
value through inattention to such matters, for pen- 
cil will rub out, ordinary inks will fade and a once 
carefully made label may become merely a blank 
or discolored scrap of paper after the lapse of a 
few years. 

If you expect to rear insects from the larvae or 
pupae you will also need one or more breeding cages. 
These may be any tight wooden boxes with netting 
or muslin doors or covers and even flower pots with 
muslin or netting tied over them will often serve 
every purpose. For convenience and the best re- 
sults, however, you will find it worth while to make 
neat breeding cages with wire-netting (such as is 
used for window screens) on at least two sides or 
on the top and one side. There should also be a 
good sized hinged door (Fig. 10). If you expect 
to collect caterpillars or grubs as specimens you 



104 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

must have a caterpillar oven, although if you pre- 
fer, you may make wax casts of the larvae or may 

L>. _ : 



.'- • c 




NU 






Fig. ii 




Fig. 12 

Fig. ii. Form of tin for making drying oven. Fig. 12. The oven 

complete 



preserve them in alcohol or formaldehyde. Good 
photographs and colored sketches of the larvae are 
also valuable and interesting and in many ways it 



INSECTS 105 

is better and easier to make your caterpillar collec- 
tion in the shape of pictures than to collect and pre- 
serve the real specimens. The caterpillar-oven 
consists of a tin box made of a sheet of tin or thin 
iron in one piece. The sheet of tin should be cut 
in the form shown in Fig. 11 and should then be 
bent in the places and in the manner indicated by the 
dotted lines. These bent edges are then riveted in 
position to form the box (Fig. 12) over which a 
sheet of clear glass is placed. 

Having all the appliances ready to begin collect- 
ing we may consider the actual work of capturing, 
preserving, and preparing the specimens and as but- 
terflies and moths are the most attractive of insects 
and are the greatest favorites with boy collectors 
we will commence with this group. 

Moths and Butterflies 

Moths and butterflies are very frequently con- 
fused and while there is little resemblance between 
typical forms of either group, yet certain species 
are difficult to distinguish. There are really many 
differences between moths and butterflies and be- 
fore you commence to collect them you should try to 
learn these distinctions. Most butterflies are day- 



106 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

fliers and rest during the night, whereas most moths 
are night-fliers and rest during the day. Butter- 
flies, as a rule, have rather thin, delicate wings, 




How to distinguish a moth from a butterfly. Characteristics of moth 
at right and of butterflies at left 



slender bodies and thread-like antennae with en- 
larged tips, while most moths have rather thick, 
strong wings, stout, fuzzy bodies and feather-like 
antennae. The majority of butterflies, when at 



INSECTS 107 

rest, hold their wings side by side vertically above 
their bodies while moths, when at rest, fold them 
longitudinally, or like a little roof, over their backs. 
Moths ordinarily obtain the nectar from flowers by 
hovering before the blossoms, while butterflies 
usually alight upon the flowers and obtain their 
food while at rest. In the caterpillar and pupa 
state there are also many differences to be noted. 
Most moths enclose their pupae in a silken cocoon or 
bury it in the earth, while butterflies suspend a 
naked pupa or chrysalis from some convenient ob- 
ject. The caterpillars of both moths and butterflies 
vary so in form, structure, and color that it is often 
difficult to tell which is which, but there are certain 
forms which are distinctive. 

Thus naked caterpillars bearing a horn or eye- 
like spot at the rear end are typical of moths and 
do not occur among the butterflies whereas naked 
caterpillars which project ill-smelling, forked horns 
from near the head, when disturbed, are typical of 
certain butterflies. Larvae bearing stiff, irritating, 
branched spines occur both among moths and but- 
terflies but densely haired or very woolly caterpillars 
are practically always the larvae of moths. 

Even the characters of the adult insects already 



io8 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

mentioned are not always typical of either moths 
or butterflies. Thus certain species of moths fly 
about in daytime and rest at night, but I do not 
know of any species of butterfly that flies at night 
and rests during the day. Hence any night-flying 
insects of these groups must be considered as a 
moth. Many moths have slender antennae, but I 
do not think any butterfly is known with feathered 
or fern-like antennae and therefore you may be rea- 
sonably certain that any insect of these two groups 
which has feathered antennae is a moth. Many 
butterflies rest occasionally with their wings hori- 
zontally folded, but moths seldom or never raise 
their wings vertically while at rest. Moreover, 
among foreign butterflies and moths there are spe- 
cies which imitate certain individuals of the other 
group and in many of these cases even an expert 
entomologist may be puzzled to determine which is 
the moth and which the butterfly. Among our na- 
tive species it is seldom difficult to distinguish moths 
from butterflies however, and by noting the form of 
body, the style of antennae, and the manner in which 
the wings are held you can almost always tell 
whether the specimen is a butterfly or a moth. 
Although we generally associate butterflies with 



INSECTS 109 

sunny open fields, green meadows, and summer 
flowers, yet many of them live in dark woods. 
Others spend most of their lives in damp, dank bogs 
and swamps; others seldom rise more than a few 
inches from the earth; while still others flit about 
among the tree-tops many feet above the ground 
and rarely ever descend. 

To secure a representative collection of butter- 
flies you must hunt in all manner of places, for the 
casual observer sees but a small portion of these 
insects. It may seem at first a very easy matter 
to capture a butterfly as it flits lazily from flower to 
flower or sails through the summer air. But to 
catch these insects and secure them without injury 
is not always as easy as it seems. Because a boy 
can rush madly after a butterfly, bang it with his 
cap, and secure the poor, mutilated creature, does 
not prove that it is a simple matter to catch a per- 
fect specimen without breaking or hurting it. 
Quite a little practice is required before you can be 
sure of securing your coveted specimen every time, 
and your time will be well spent if you practice on 
some common injurious species such as the white 
and pale yellow "cabbage butterflies" which are 
serious pests to gardeners. 



no THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

Butterflies seem to delight in teasing the insect 
collector and flit away just as the net descends, 
only to alight on some other object a short distance 
away where they wait patiently until once more the 
net sweeps down and again they escape, and con- 
tinue to repeat the performance over and over again 
until one is hot, tired, and out of patience, where- 
upon the evasive insect sails calmly away out of 
sight. 

To succeed in catching butterflies with the net 
you should approach the insect slowly and cau- 
tiously; never rush or run toward it, for a sudden 
motion or a slight jar or noise will often frighten 
it. Do not try to catch the insect until you are sure 
it is within reach of the net for if you miss, the 
butterfly may fly far away and out of sight. In 
using the net make a quick, sure sweep sideways 
and with a twist of the wrist turn the net over as 
soon as the insect is captured, so that the bag folds 
over and prevents the butterfly from escaping. 
Never try to bring a net down over a butterfly if it 
is possible to use the side sweep. If this is done 
the plant or other object upon which the insect rests 
will usually tear your net and the butterfly will es- 
cape through the rent or from beneath the edge 



INSECTS in 

of the net. Of course there are times when it is 
necessary to bring the net straight down, as for in- 
stance when a butterfly is resting on the earth, on 
a tree trunk, on a stone, or on a spot where he is in a 
depression ; but even in such situations an expert will 
usually manage to capture his specimen with a side 
stroke. As soon as the insect is caught and the net 
folded as described, gather the bag up carefully 
and hold the folds tightly enough to prevent the 
captive from fluttering. Grasp the butterfly be- 
tween the thumb and fingers from the outside of 
the net and drop a little benzine or gasolene upon 
it. The hold on the insect may then be released, 
the net unfolded, and the insect carefully removed. 
Do not try to lift a butterfly or moth by the wings, 
and if possible handle it with forceps and not with 
your fingers. The least touch upon the wings will 
rub off the delicate scales and injure the specimen; 
the best method is to use the forceps and grasp only 
the body. Very often a captured butterfly in a 
net may have one or both pairs of wings spread out 
and in such cases it is a good plan to drop the 
benzine upon it before attempting to grasp it. As 
soon as the insect is dead and removed from the 
net place it in one of the prepared papers — being 



ii2 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

sure that the wings are folded in their proper posi- 
tion, vertically over the back — crease down the 
edges of the paper and place it in the box or con- 
tainer as already directed. 

When you reach home you should proceed to 
mount the specimens while they are still fresh and 
flexible. Much better results can be obtained in 
this way, but if for any reason you cannot attend 
to them at once they may be left in their papers 
until it is convenient to mount them. 

Then the papers should be placed (without open- 
ing) in a box partly filled with damp sawdust or 
sand where they should be left overnight. The 
next day the papers should be carefully opened and 
the insects should be gently turned over and left ex- 
posed in the box until they are thoroughly softened 
and flexible. It is a good plan to dampen the sand or 
sawdust with a little formaldehyde solution or 
carbolic acid, as otherwise the specimens may mil- 
dew or mold. 

After the insects are softened they may be 
handled and mounted exactly as if they were freshly 
killed. First grasp the butterfly or moth at the 
thorax between the thumb and fingers — being care- 
ful to keep the wings side by side and vertically 



INSECTS 



ii3 



above the body (Fig. 13) — and with the other hand 
press an insect-pin down through the thorax — the 
part of the body just back of the head — using care 
to run the pin from top to bottom in line with the 
front edges of the wings and in the center of the 
thorax. Run the pin straight, for if it enters at an 
angle the body will be askew on the pin and a good, 




Fig. 13 



Fig. 14 



Fig. 13. How to grasp a butterfly for pinning, 

pin the butterfly 



Fig. 14. How to 



well-mounted specimen cannot be obtained. Push 
the pin through the thorax until a little more than 
half its length projects below the body (Fig. 14) 
and then pin the insect in a groove of a mounting- 
board with the body longitudinally in the crack and 
with the upper side of the body just level with the 
two side pieces of the board (Fig. 15). In select- 



ii4 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

ing the pin use one suited to the size of the insect; 
a pin that is too fine is a nuisance and will not sup- 
port an insect that is large or heavy, and, on the 
other hand, a pin that is too large may break or in- 
jure the specimen and will look coarse and ugly. 
Use a mounting board which has a width greater 
than the spread of the insect's wings and with an 
opening between the boards which is only a trifle 
wider than the insect's body. 

When placing the first specimen on a board set it 
near one end, or at the top (Fig. 16), so that other 
insects may be mounted without injuring or dis- 
turbing the first one. When the specimen is in 
position select one of the needles in a wooden handle 
and gently press one pair of wings down to the 
board. Use care in doing this and do not attempt 
to pierce the wings with the needle, but press it 
firmly sideways against the thicker edges or ribs 
of the wings close to the body. With very fine 
pins, inserted through the thick ribs of the wings or 
very close to them, pin the wing to the board and 
repeat the operation on the opposite side. By 
means of your needle points and pins arrange the 
wings in a natural position and use great care to 
see that both pairs of wings are equally spread and 



INSECTS 115 

that both are in line across the board. In order to 
make this easier it is a good plan to have lines ruled 




Fig. 16 




Fig. 18 




Fig. 17 



\< \\ 




Fig. 15 



FlG. 15. How a butterfly should be pinned on spreading board. 
Fig. 16. Place the first specimen at one end of the board. 
Fig. 17. It is easier to spread the specimens evenly if the board 
is ruled. Fig. 18. Secure the wings and legs in position by 
strips of paper pinned in place 

across the mounting boards at frequent intervals 
(Fig. 17). 



n6 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

When the wings are arranged satisfactorily take 
some narrow strips of card, lay them across the 
wings, and pin them firmly to the board with stout, 
common pins inserted through the strips beyond 
the edges of the wings (Fig. 18). Remove the fine 
pins, which held the wings in position, and with 
your needles and forceps lift up and arrange the 
fore legs and antennae and secure them in position 
by tiny strips of paper as shown in the illustration. 
If the body is out of true, or twists to either side, 
secure it by pins placed diagonally across it as in 
the cut and then set the board with the insects in a 
safe place to dry. Select a cool, dry spot, free from 
dust, insects, or draughts of wind, such as a shelf 
in a closet or a large tight case, but never in a small 
box, in a drawer, or in bright sunlight. Many of 
the butterflies and moths have very different colors 
or patterns upon the upper and lower surfaces of 
their wings and when such is the case it will add a 
great deal to the interest of the collection to have 
two specimens of the species — one mounted upside 
down the other right side up. Still other species 
have bright-colored lower wings and dull colored 
upper wings which conceal the others when the in- 
sect is at rest. In this case a specimen should be 



INSECTS 117 

mounted with wings fully spread to show both pairs 
and another specimen should be prepared with the 
wings folded as in life (Fig. 19). After the in- 
sects are thoroughly dry remove the pins and strips 
of card which hold the wings, body and legs, etc., 
in place, and very carefully remove the specimen 
from the mounting card by means of the pin 
through its body. If the specimen is to be kept in 
a case or drawer the pin should be thrust through 
its proper label (a temporary label having served 
while the insect was drying) and the specimen 
pinned firmly to the bottom of the receptacle. If it 
is to be mounted in a Riker mount the lower side of 
the pin must be carefully cut off just beneath the 
body, the insect placed in position on the cotton and 
the upper portion of the pin snipped off with a pair 
of small cutting-pliers. Another method is to 
mount the insect on the mounting board as directed 
and after the wings, legs, antennae etc., are ar- 
ranged and secured, withdraw the pin from the 
body very carefully by holding the tips of the for- 
ceps on either side of the pin against the thorax 
while pulling upward gently on the pin. Never 
try to remove a pin from an insect after it is thor- 
oughly dry — once in a great while it may be accom- 



n8 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

plished in safety, but nine times out of ten you'll 
ruin the specimen and break it to pieces. 

You will be able to obtain a large proportion of 
your butterflies with the net, as they rest on flow- 
ers, hover by the sides of puddles, or flock about 
piles of decaying fruit or carrion, but you will find 
other methods must be employed to secure speci- 
mens of moths. Some species, such as the clear- 
wing or "humming-bird" hawk moths fly about in 
the brightest sunshine and hover before flowers like 
bumble bees or humming-birds and such species 
may be captured with the net. Other species, such 
as the larger sphinx, or hawk, moths hover before 
flowers in the evening and suck the nectar by means 
of their long, flexible tongues which are kept coiled 
beneath the head, like a spiral watch-spring. By 
using a flash light or bull's-eye lantern or by stroll- 
ing among the flowers in the dusk of early evening, 
or on moonlight nights, many of these may also be 
captured with a net. By far the greater number of 
moths must be obtained by trapping, jacking, or 
sugaring, however. All moths, as well as many 
other insects, are attracted by lights, and a moth- 
trap is merely a box of wood or netting with a 
funnel-like opening and with a lantern placed at 



19 



24 




28 



Methods of Mounting Moths, Bee and Caterpillars 
{See Chapter V) 




A Moth May Be Mounted on Its Cocoon. This Specimen Is 

the Prometheus 
{See Chapter V) 



INSECTS 119 

one end behind a screen of glass or netting (Fig. 
20). 

Even a plain lantern will often attract many 
moths, especially if set in a garden among flower 
beds, in the woods, or in an orchard. If an open 
lantern is used the moths may be captured with a 
net as they flit about the light, while those in the 
trap may be killed by dropping a little benzine upon 
them or squirting it on them with a small syringe. 
Before using the benzine the light should be re- 
moved from the trap however, unless an electric 
light is used. 

Sometimes a great number of moths may be se- 
cured by placing a bright light behind a sheet or 
piece of white cloth. As the moths light upon the 
white, illuminated surface, they may be caught with 
a small net or may be killed by squirting benzine 
upon them. Moths may also be stunned and ren- 
dered unconscious by striking them sharply upon 
the thorax with a piece of flexible cardboard or 
stiff paper. They may then be killed with benzine 
and in many cases this is the best method to follow. 
It is particularly useful in catching the handsome 
"underwing" or Catocala moths and the large 
sphinx-moths which rest during the day upon 



120 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

stones, fences, or tree-trunks. The upper wings 
of these moths so closely resemble the objects upon 
which they rest that they are almost indistinguish- 
able, but as soon as they fly their bright-colored 
lower wings of red or yellow are very prominent. 
To successfully hunt these moths requires keen 
eyes and not a little skill, for they'll lead you a 
merry game of hide-and-seek through the woods 
as they flash into view at your approach, only to dis- 
appear as if by magic when they alight upon an- 
other tree. A great many night-flying insects and 
many moths may also be obtained by "sugaring." 
If you "sugar" for beetles and other small insects 
the sugar preparation may be placed in bottles or 
jars and the creatures attracted will drop into the 
mixture and you can secure them at your leisure; 
but for moths another method must be followed. In 
this case the mixture should be painted or smeared 
upon the trunks of trees, upon fences, stones, or 
other objects. The mixture used in "sugaring" 
consists of sugar, molasses, vinegar, water, and 
stale beer. Coat a number of trees or other ob- 
jects with the mixture and with net and lantern 
visit them every few minutes. You will find many 
rare and beautiful specimens attracted to the sweet 



INSECTS 



121 



iffcss <"" netting 




Cut- here 



Fig. 26 

Fig. 20. Moth trap. Fig. 21. A flower pot breeding cage. Fig. 22. 
Larva infested by ichneumon cocoons. Fig. 23. How to cut a 
caterpillar for drying. Fig. 25. Beetle mounted with wings 
closed. Fig. 26. Beetle mounted with spread wings 



122 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

compound and so intent upon eating it that they 
may be readily captured. Sugaring in this way 
often attracts many butterflies during the daytime 
and every insect collector should make frequent use 
of this method of obtaining specimens. 

The powerful electric lights of cities and towns 
often attract great numbers of night-flying insects 
and the young collector may often obtain rare and 
fine specimens by going the rounds of the lights 
with a cyanide bottle, an insect net, and some ben- 
zine. In large cities there are few insects about 
the lights, but in parks, in the suburbs, and in small 
towns and country villages vast numbers of insects 
are attracted to the lights. Of course a great many 
of these find their way into the globes and are 
broken, burned, and ruined, but many of them flit 
about until tired, when they rest themselves upon 
near-by trees, fences, or posts, or else become 
dazzled or stunned and drop to the street or side- 
walk beneath the lights where they may be easily 
caught. 

Although you can manage to obtain a very good 
collection of moths and butterflies by the various 
methods described, yet certain species are seldom 
obtainable except by rearing them from the larvae. 




At Top, a Well Mounted Moth. At Bottom, Ichneumon Fly 

Emerging from Chrysalis 

{See Chapter V) 



INSECTS 123 

Far more perfect specimens may be secured by rear- 
ing butterflies and moths than by catching them 
fully grown, you will learn much more about 
their lives and habits in this way than by hunting 
the adult insects and in addition it's very interest- 
ing to raise larvae or pupae and watch them trans- 
form to moths and butterflies. 

Whenever a caterpillar is found it should be 
placed in the box with the perforated top, with a 
few leaves of the plant on which it was feeding and 
you should take care to note the kind of plant on 
which it was found. Each species of larva has a 
certain food plant and while many kinds will de- 
vour a great variety of plants, yet others will eat 
but a single species and will starve to death unless 
the proper plant is provided for them. When you 
reach home the leaves and twigs should be placed 
in a bottle, or jar, of water with cotton or paper 
stuffed into the mouth around the stems so that the 
larvae will not fall into the water and the whole 
should then be placed in the breeding cage with the 
larvae. A number of kinds of caterpillars may be 
kept in the same cage, but they will do better if 
not crowded and it is a good plan to keep each 
species by itself. 



124 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

Many species of larvae enter the earth to trans- 
form to a chrysalis and the breeding cage should 
always be provided with a layer of earth several 
inches in depth, or with a small box or tin filled 
with earth. Quite often a flower-pot filled with 
earth and with a growing plant will make an excel- 
lent breeding-cage for a single caterpillar if some 
muslin or mosquito-netting is tied over it as in Fig. 

21. 

Leaves or plants must be changed each day and 
fresh ones given to the larvae, for caterpillars will 
not attain full size and be healthy if they are com- 
pelled to feed upon wilted or dried leaves. Many 
of them are very ravenous and devour an immense 
amount of green food, but no matter how much they 
eat you must provide enough so there is always 
some left over — you cannot overfeed a caterpillar. 
Keep the cages clean and neat and never handle or 
touch the larvae if it can be avoided and as soon as 
they transform to pupae or cocoons leave them un- 
disturbed until they emerge as moths or butterflies. 
Some species make their pupae and emerge as adult 
insects the same season, but the majority remain 
over winter in the pupae state. These will be far 
healthier if kept out of doors in a sheltered spot or 



INSECTS 125 

in a dry cellar, for it will not injure them to freeze 
solid. Earth which contains pupae should, how- 
ever, be given a covering of dead leaves, straw, or 
litter, and the boxes or tins containing them should 
be protected from rain, for if the earth becomes too 
damp or water-soaked the pupae will mold and de- 
cay. 

Oftentimes a caterpillar will develop queer, white 
protuberances or little cottony objects upon its skin. 
When this occurs it is just as well to kill the poor 
creature at once, by dropping it into alcohol or 
formaldehyde or a cyanide bottle. If you don't 
do this the larva will die a slow and lingering death, 
for the white objects are the cocoons of small flies, 
known as ichneumon flies, which lay their eggs 
upon, or just under, the surface of the skin of the 
caterpillar. The fly larvae hatch out within the 
body of their victim and actually eat him alive and 
when fully grown form the white cocoons upon the 
doomed caterpillar's skin (Fig. 22). Although the 
larva may not appear to be injured or greatly dis- 
turbed by these parasites yet it will surely die and 
even if it lives long enough to form a pupa or cocoon 
no moth or butterfly will ever emerge therefrom. 

Another class of ichneumons do not make them- 



126 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

selves known until the pupa or cocoon of the cater- 
pillar is made. The larvae of these flies live within 
the body of the caterpillar and do not transform to 
pupae until the caterpillar victim has itself made its 
chrysalis. Then, while the caterpillar dies, the fly 
pupae live on and eventually flies issue from the 
chrysalis or cocoon instead of a butterfly or moth — 
much to the surprise of the collector. These 
parasitic flies are very useful to man and do a splen- 
did service in keeping injurious insects in check. 
For this reason you will confer a real benefit upon 
the agriculturists by turning loose any ichneumon 
flies which hatch from your pupae or cocoons, as 
well as any larvae which are affected by the flies, 
but it seems a rather inhuman and cruel thing to 
do and personally I can never bring myself to let 
parasite-infested caterpillars go on suffering, but 
invariably kill them; even though I realize I am 
thus aiding and abetting the increase of injurious 
larvae. 

Of course if you collect flies and other insects 
these ichneumon flies should also be collected and 
preserved, and even a moth or butterfly collection 
will be more interesting and scientifically valuable 
if the various parasites of the larvae are preserved 



INSECTS 127 

and exhibited with the species they infest. All in- 
sect parasites are of great importance and the study 
of their lives and habits has saved millions of dol- 
lars' worth of grain and fruit, and there is a small 
army of entomological experts continually scouring 
all parts of the world in search of parasites which 
will prey upon such insect-pests as the gipsy and 
brown-tailed moths, boll-worms, army-worms, vari- 
ous scale-insects, and other injurious species. 

The larvae and pupae of moths and butterflies are 
just as interesting and important as the adult in- 
sects and many of them are very beautiful in color 
or are so striking and peculiar in markings or form 
that they are well worth preserving. The ideal way 
of collecting caterpillars is to photograph them and 
either color the photographs by hand or make 
water-color sketches to accompany the photographs. 
In this way you can rear the larva, obtain the moth 
or butterfly and also show the appearance of the 
caterpillar. Oftentimes this is a great advantage 
as you may never find more than one or two speci- 
mens of some rare larva. Another method is to 
preserve the caterpillars in alcohol or formaldehyde 
and if this is done you should make colored sketches 
also, for the colors of the larvae will entirely dis- 



128 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

appear after a short immersion in the solution. 
Still another method is to make plaster-molds and 
wax casts and for naked, smooth-skinned larvae this 
is a very satisfactory method. It is, however, im- 
possible to make casts of the hairy, woolly, or spiny 
species and advanced collectors usually preserve 
their larvae by blowing and drying them. This is 
not difficult and if well done the larvae will retain 
their natural colors and forms to perfection. 

It was for this purpose that the tin caterpillar 
oven was provided and the method of preserving 
the larvae by this process is as follows : 

First kill the larva by dropping it into a cyanide 
bottle. Then with a pair of very fine scissors make 
an incision in the rear end of the caterpillar as 
shown in Fig. 23. Place the caterpillar on a sheet 
of blotting paper and with another sheet press 
firmly upon the body — working from the head back- 
wards — until all the internal organs are pushed out 
through the cut. Then spread a layer of dry sand, 
about half an inch deep, over the bottom of the tin 
oven, set the oven on a small stove, lamp, or electric 
heater and place the glass cover in position. While 
the oven is warming up insert a straw in the in- 
cision in the larva's body, secure it in place with a 



INSECTS 129 

very fine insect pin, and blow gently through the 
straw until the skin of the caterpillar fills up plump 
and naturally. While still blowing place the cater- 
pillar in the hole in the end of the oven and while 
turning it about continue to keep the skin inflated 
until the skin is dry and stiff and retains its plump 
form. The process may be watched through the 
glass top to the oven and you should use care not to 
get the oven too hot and scorch or brown the larva. 
Your first attempts should be confined to fairly 
large, smooth-skinned larvae, for these are much 
easier to prepare than those with hair or spines, but 
as soon as you once acquire the knack of drying them 
you will find it an easy matter to accomplish. No 
doubt the first few larvae you dry will be straight, 
rigid, and far from natural in form, but this will 
soon be overcome and you will learn just how to 
bend or move them until you can dry the larvae in 
any position you wish. Some collectors obtain 
wonderfully lifelike results by filling the dried skins 
with melted paraffin, which may be injected by 
means of a small syringe or by drawing the melted 
wax into a small tube or straw and blowing it into 
the skin through the opening between the hind legs. 
Many larvae will turn dark or will fade in drying 



130 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

and in such cases the finished specimens may be 
touched up with oil-colors and a fine brush. As 
soon as the skin is stiff and dry remove it from the 
oven, turn it about once or twice until cool and 
place it on a sheet of soft cloth or on cotton until 
ready to mount. Prepared caterpillars may be 
placed in the Riker mounts with the adult insects, 
or they may be pinned in cases or boxes with pins 
thrust through the rear end of the bodies. The 
most attractive and interesting way of mounting 
them is to arrange them in their natural attitudes 
upon their food-plants, either in cases, in Riker 
mounts by themselves, or in combination with their 
adult forms of butterflies or moths. A great many 
of our caterpillars have marvelous habits of imitat- 
ing surrounding objects and by studying these and 
imitating them with the preserved larvae you can 
produce very interesting and striking groups. 
Among such are the common "Twig-caterpillars" 
which counterfeit twigs while at rest (Fig. 24). 
Such specimens never fail to arouse interest and 
admiration in those who view the collections. 

Pupae and cocoons should also be preserved, but 
to prepare these is very simple. Cocoons may be 
kept until the adult insects emerge and the empty 



INSECTS 131 

cocoons may then be placed in the collection, but 
pupae must be killed by being soaked in alcohol or 
formaldehyde and afterwards dried or else they 
may be kept permanently in the solutions, which is 
a far less satisfactory method. Many of our com- 
mon larvae go through a number of stages before 
they transform to pupae and they often differ so 
greatly during these several transformations that 
you can scarcely believe they are one and the same 
species. In such cases you should strive to pre- 
serve or photograph all the distinct stages of the 
larvae. All these little details add greatly to the 
value and completeness of the insect collections and 
you should try to secure specimens of each species 
in as many of its stages of growth as possible and 
at the same time illustrate its habits, food plants, 
and mode of life by arranging the specimens of 
larvae, pupae adults, etc., in groups in their natural 
attitudes and among their natural surroundings. 

Beetles, Bees, and Other Insects 

Beetles are among the most numerous of all in- 
sects and are found nearly everywhere. Many 
species live in dead or decaying wood, others are 
ground-loving species and are found beneath stones, 



132 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

logs, etc. Others are always found on flowers, 
others on plants, trees, or leaves, and others on de- 
caying carrion or animal matter. 

Many beetles are injurious and do an immense 
amount of damage to crops, grain, foodstuffs, 
fabrics, and timber, while others are equally useful 
and prey upon other injurious insects. 

The larval forms of beetles are known as grubs 
and the only way to preserve them is to keep them 
in alcohol or formaldehyde or else make wax casts, 
which is seldom worth while. 

Beetles are very easy to collect and may be killed 
by dropping them into cynanide bottles or into al- 
cohol or formaline. They may be mounted by pin- 
ning through one of the wing-covers (Fig. 25) and 
then spreading the legs and antennae or they may 
be pinned through the thorax and prepared with 
wings spread as in Fig. 26. As a rule the former 
method is preferable, for the wings of beetles are 
seldom ornamental or attractive and the specimens 
appear far more life-like with the wings folded. 
Beetles may be kept in cases, drawers, or cabinets 
or in Riker or similar mounts, and those species 
which feed upon plants or have peculiar habits 
should be arranged to illustrate such matters. 



INSECTS 133 

Many fine beetle specimens may be obtained by 
sugaring, as already mentioned, and many others 
may be secured about electric lights. Another fine 
collecting ground for beetles is on the shores of 
lakes or on the seashore. Vast numbers of insects, 
flying over the water, become exhausted and 
drowned and their bodies are washed up on the 
beaches. Many of these are broken and ruined, 
but by looking over the trash and seaweed cast up 
by the waves you will find a great many very per- 
fect and unusual specimens. Some species of 
beetles fly as readily and as rapidly in the daytime 
as other insects and for these you will have to use 
the insect net. 

Some of these, such as the beautiful Tiger 
beetles, which are carnivorous and live upon hot, 
sandy spots, are very difficult to capture, while 
others, which hover about flowers or around plants, 
are easy to obtain. Many beetles are very fond of 
decaying fruit, or the sweetish sap from trees, and 
large numbers may sometimes be captured by set- 
ting out bait in the form of decayed vegetables, 
fruit, and similar things. 

A great many beetles feed on the pollen and 
nectar of flowers and upon milkweed, roses, golden- 



134 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

rod, and many other plants quite a number of 
beetles may usually be found. There are also many 
species which bore into both decayed or solid wood 
and the only way to secure specimens of some of 
these boring beetles is to dig them out of the wood 
or else rear them by carrying home the larvae-in- 
fested wood and placing it in a cage or box. 

By turning over stones or logs one may often 
find many interesting ground beetles, some of which 
are very beautiful in color. 

Among our strangest beetles are the so-called 
"carrion-beetles" or "burying-beetles" (Fig. 27). 
These may be found by turning over dead birds or 
animals, or cow-dung, and while they live in such 
disagreeable places they are well worth collecting 
on account of their bright colors and remarkable 
habits. These insects dig away the earth beneath 
the decaying animal matter until they actually suc- 
ceed in burying it, whereupon they deposit their 
eggs in the mass and thus provide a supply of food 
for their young larvae. 

Among the grass, weeds, plants, and brush of 
fields and pastures a vast number of insects live 
throughout the warmer months. You may wander 
for hours, or days, among such growths and never 



INSECTS 135 

suspect the teeming life which surrounds you, for 
aside from the crickets, grasshoppers, and an oc- 
casional moth or butterfly, the insect denizens of 




Fig. 2.7. Carrion or burying beetles at work 

these places are shy and retiring. The boy col- 
lector will find a wonderful number of specimens 
in such situations, and it is in this work that the 



136 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

stout, square-ended beating-net is used. Walk . 
through a field or pasture and swing the open net 
back and forth through the weeds and grass before 
you and after proceeding a few hundred feet stop 
and carefully examine the interior of the net. 
You will find a number of bits of grass, many 
leaves, some seeds and flowers and among these — 
and scurrying back and forth upon the inside of 
the net — a veritable army of insects. Among them 
will be representatives of nearly every group — 
grasshoppers, crickets, moths, flies, wasps, bees, 
bugs, beetles, caterpillars, ants, spiders, and prob- 
ably a few small butterflies. No doubt there will 
be so many specimens that you cannot capture and 
kill all you want before some escape, but if you are 
seeking some special group or groups you can pay 
attention to these only and let the other things go. 
Another good plan is to fold the net over — after 
beating for a time — and then quickly empty the 
contents into a deep netting bag with a draw-string 
at the top. Then by drawing the opening tight you 
can shake and work the captives into a small space 
at the bottom and dip the bag and contents into 
gasolene. This will kill all the creatures and those 
which you do not want may be thrown away. This 



INSECTS 137 

may seem like wholesale destruction, but destruc- 
tion of insect life is commendable, as the majority 
of the things killed are injurious to crops or forage. 

Another method by which many small insects 
and ground beetles may be obtained is to spread a 
white cloth or sheet upon the ground, rake up leaves 
and earth in the woods and sift it through a sieve 
upon the sheet. Among the fine litter and bits of 
decaying wood and leaves you will usually find a 
large number of insects and a great many small 
land snails. Some species of beetles can be ob- 
tained only by such methods and the successful col- 
lector is he who resorts to all means and searches 
in all places for his specimens. 

Wasps, bees, and hornets are very interesting in- 
sects and many of them have habits, life-histories, 
or peculiarities which are worthy of study. Bees, 
wasps, and hornets may be caught in nets or may 
be captured by sugaring, and many of the smaller 
species may be obtained by beating grass and weeds. 
Wasps, bees, and other winged insects should be 
killed by benzine, in cyanide bottles, or by immer- 
sion in alcohol or formaldehyde, and they should be 
mounted on mounting boards like butterflies or 
moths. The larvae of bees, wasps, etc., must be 



138 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

kept in alcohol or formaline if they are to be pre- 
served, but they are usually of little interest. The 
nests or homes of these insects are, however, very 
interesting and should be preserved. Wasps' nests 
and hornets' nests may be kept without prepara- 
tions, but it's a wise plan to dip them in gasolene or 
benzine in order to kill any eggs or grubs which 
might later emerge as full-grown hornets and make 
things lively. Many of the bees and wasps make 
very interesting homes in trees, fences, or wooden 
objects, and these should be collected and exhibited 
by cutting out a piece of wood containing the nest. 
The piece may then be cut or sawed so as to expose 
the interior and the adult insect may be mounted in 
a natural attitude upon it (Fig. 28). Flies are 
very numerous and many species are beautiful and 
curious and until one collects them it is hard to 
realize how interesting and variable these insects 
really are. They should be mounted in a similar 
manner to bees, wasps, etc., and grasshoppers, 
crickets, bugs, and other winged insects are treated 
in the same way. Finally, do not overlook the 
brooks, streams, and ponds in your search for in- 
sects. There are many species of water-beetles, 
water-bugs, water-flies, and even moths whose 



INSECTS 139 

larvae live under water. Around the edges of 
bodies of water one often finds certain species of 
moths, butterflies, beetles, and other insects which 
are never seen in any other situations. 



CHAPTER VI 

FRESH WATER ANIMALS 

IN the waters and upon the beds of lakes, ponds, 
brooks, and streams there are immense numbers 
of very interesting creatures. Of course we are all 
familiar with turtles, frogs, fish, and other forms of 
water life, and while many of these make interest- 
ing collections there are other things which are far 
less known and far more interesting and of greater 
educational value. 

If you expect to collect frogs, turtles, reptiles, 
or fish you will find the best method is to make 
plaster or wax casts of the frogs, salamanders, and 
other soft bodied creatures, while the snakes and 
turtles may be skinned, stuffed, and mounted; but 
this is hard, mussy, and unpleasant work. More- 
over, in order to make such collections you must 
destroy a great many harmless and really useful 
creatures, and the aim of the boy collector should 
be to protect and encourage all forms of life which 

are not really injurious or which are of such minor 

140 



FRESH WATER ANIMALS 141 

importance that they can well be spared. Fortu- 
nately, a good collection of photographs of frogs, 
turtles, snakes, etc., is more satisfactory and attrac- 
tive than a collection of the real objects and it's far 
more fun to obtain them. 

Among the lower forms of water life you'll find 
an abundance of interesting things, many of which 
you never dreamed existed, and no one can find 
fault with you for collecting and preserving them. 

For collecting specimens in fresh water you will 
need a few tools and appliances, but they are all 
easily made or inexpensive. You should have a 
dip-net of some sort and this may be either a fine- 
meshed minnow-net, or you can, if you prefer, make 
it yourself by sewing a piece of fish-net to a stout 
hoop made as directed for insect nets. Another 
important implement is a scoop, which may be made 
out of any old tin or iron dipper or saucepan by 
simply punching numerous holes in the bottom and 
bending it flat on one side as indicated in Fig. 1. 
This should be fastened to a long, strong handle, 
but any pole cut in the woods or beside the brook or 
pond will serve and the scoop may be wired, lashed, 
or nailed to it and the handle detached and thrown 
aside when you are through using the scoop, thus 



142 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 



saving the trouble of carrying a handle back and 
forth on your trips. 




Fig. i 




Fig. 4 




Fig. 3 



Fig. i. The saucepan scoop. Fig. 3. Horned corydalis. 
Fig. 4. Giant water bug 

An old iron rake is also useful and you should 
have a number of jars or bottles, some empty and 



FRESH WATER ANIMALS 143 

others filled with alcohol or formaline. The bottles 
may be carried in a basket, valise, or any other re- 
ceptacle, and a common fish basket or "creel" is ex- 
cellent. The only other tools you will need are a 
pair of forceps and, if possible, a pocket-lens or 
magnifying glass, a tin pail, and a small sieve. 

To collect the specimens, visit the nearest water 
course, lake, or pond, and while standing at the 
edge of the water dig and scrape up a scoopful of 
the sand, gravel, or mud from the bottom. Hold 
the scoop with the upper edge above the surface of 
the water and shake it back and forth until the fine 
mud and dirt has been washed out and then exam- 
ine its contents. You will probably find a quantity 
of sand, gravel, and small stones, bits of water- 
weeds and water-soaked chips, but you will also 
find a number of strange forms of life. 

To examine it to better advantage dump the con- 
tents into the sieve and wash it and with the for- 
ceps pick out whatever objects you see which seem 
of interest and drop them into the pail partly filled 
with water or into jars of water. The commonest 
things will probably be fresh-water snails and 
shells, but usually there will also be fresh-water 
crustaceans, tadpoles, and numerous water-insects 



144 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

and their larvae. There may also be fresh-water 
sponges — for, strange as it may seem, there are 
sponges in fresh water — and there will almost al- 
ways be some odd little cones, coils, and spheres 
formed of bits of sticks, tiny pebbles, etc. These 
will no doubt prove a puzzle and if they com- 
mence to move about — as they doubtless will — 
you will be still more at a loss to account for them. 
These strange objects are the little submarine 
homes of the larvae of insects called caddice flies. 
The adult insects are delicate, gauze-winged crea- 
tures which are often found in great swarms about 
electric lights. The eggs are laid in or near the 
water and the larvae spend their lives on the bottom 
of streams and ponds. Each species builds a little 
home peculiar to its kind and while some are very 
roughly and carelessly made of bits of rubbish, 
others are really wonderful in their beauty and per- 
fection of form. Some of the houses are like tiny, 
coiled, snail-shells ; others are formed like miniature 
elephants' tusks; others are almost globular, and 
still others are merely cylindrical in form. A great 
many are built up from small pebbles or grains of 
sand; others are composed of tiny shells; some 
species built their homes of bits of grass or straw 



FRESH WATER ANIMALS 145 

so neatly fastened together that they resemble little 
bamboo cylinders, and one peculiar form of caddice- 
fly home is formed of minute twigs or straws placed 
criss-cross like a tiny log-cabin (Fig. 2). These 
larvae are carnivorous and feed upon small crea- 
tures in the water and one species even traps its 
prey by building nets across the spaces between 
submerged rocks and thus is a real insect-fisher- 
man. When the larvae are fully grown they trans- 
form to pupae within their little houses and in due 
time the adult insects come forth. When first 
hatched the fly is a bedraggled creature with tiny 
pads upon its back, but it immediately crawls upon 
some convenient object above water, spreads and 
dries its wings and in a short time flies gaily off as 
if it had always been accustomed to an aerial life, 
instead of having spent most of its days at the bot- 
tom of the water. Of course these strange insects 
really belong in the insect collection, but if you wish 
you may make a collection of fresh-water animals 
regardless of the groups to which the specimens be- 
long and in such a collection caddice-flies should 
certainly be included. There are many other pe- 
culiar insects whose larval forms are passed be- 
neath water. Among these are the lively, vicious- 



146 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

looking "Helgramites" which are the larvse of the 
big, gauzy-winged insects with long, sharp nippers 
which you often find about lights and which are a 
great puzzle to many young collectors (Fig. 3). 
This insect is known as the "Horned Corydalis' , 
and is quite harmless, despite its villainous aspect. 
Another water insect which is common about elec- 
tric lights is a big, hard-shelled, dull-greenish bug 
(Fig. 4). In many parts of the country these in- 
sects were scarcely known until after the advent of 
the electric lights and many ignorant people had an 
idea that they were connected in some mysterious 
way with electricity. Even to-day they are called 
"Electric light bugs" in some places. They are 
really true bugs and their natural home is in the 
water, but as they are attracted by lights like other 
insects and can fly readily they often leave their 
watery homes and make trips to the bright city 
lights — usually to their own undoing. They are 
powerful swimmers and live upon small fish, young 
frogs, tadpoles, and other water animals, and 
as they can bite viciously they should be han- 
dled with caution. The young collector will often 
find these as well as many other water bugs upon 
the shore of ponds and lakes. Still other crea- 




2 — Caddice Flies and Their Houses 




5 — Fresh Water Snails 
(See Chapter VI) 




3 

Oh 

O 

— 

o 






V 



3 






"3 



&1 



FRESH WATER ANIMALS 147 

tures may be obtained by the dip-net for fresh- 
water life is abundant near the surface as well as 
upon the bottom and the forms of animal life found 
in the various parts of a pond or lake are quite dis- 
tinct. Many of the fresh-water snails or shells are 
very beautiful, and a collection of fresh-water and 
land shells, or even fresh-water shells alone, is very 
interesting. 

Until you commence to collect shells you will not 
realize what a variety may be obtained from a 
single small district, and you will be surprised at 
the number of forms and colors which they ex- 
hibit. 

Many of the water snails are in the form of 
spiral coils, while others are flat coils and although 
the majority are "right handed," or, in other words, 
have the coil running from left to right, there are 
some species which reverse the order of things and 
turn from right to left (Fig. 5). In addition to 
these univalve or snail-shells there are fresh-water 
bivalve shells. Among the commonest and most 
attractive of these are the fresh-water mussels or 
fresh-water clams. Some of these are very beauti- 
ful, with variegated green or yellow outer surfaces 
and pink, purple, blue, or iridescent pearly interiors. 



148 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

It is from these that the valuable fresh-water pearls 
are obtained and where the fresh-water clams are 
abundant the boy collector may be richly rewarded 
by finding pearls in the shells. In some parts of 
the country pearls are far more common than in 
others, but you can never tell beforehand where 
pearls may be found in fresh-water clam shells. 
In some of the western streams pearl fishing is a 
regular industry and in many places the shells have 
been nearly exterminated by the persistent fisher- 
men. But pearl-bearing, fresh-water clams are 
not confined to the West. Many of the brooks and 
streams in Maine and other Eastern States teem 
with these shells and thousands of dollars' worth 
of pearls are obtained from the Maine fresh-water 
clams. I have seen single pearls worth nearly one 
thousand dollars taken from shells found in New 
England brooks. Fishing for fresh-water pearls 
is almost as exciting and fascinating as hunting 
for buried treasure and, what is more, the pearl 
hunter stands a far better chance of success than 
the usual treasure hunter. Of course every shell 
does not contain a pearl — you may open thousands 
without finding a single pearl, but then again you 



FRESH WATER ANIMALS 149 

may find a dozen or more little pearls or even one 
huge pearl in the very first shell you examine. 

Some of these fresh-water pearl shells are very 
thin and fragile but others are heavy and thick 
and the latter are often of commercial value as 
they are used in making mother-of-pearl buttons. 
Although at first you may not note much difference 
between the various fresh-water clams, you will 
find if you examine them that there are a great 
many species, especially in the brooks, rivers, and 
lakes of the Middle West. In this section fresh- 
water clams abound and specimens of their shells 
alone will make a large collection. 

Even if you do not collect specimens of fresh- 
water life, you should not fail to visit the bodies 
of water in your neighborhood and study the many 
strange creatures that you'll find there, for if you 
are interested in nature or in animal life you will 
find a lake or mill-pond a veritable wonderland. 



CHAPTER VII 

MARINE ANIMALS 

INTERESTING and numerous as are the 
forms of life found on the land and in fresh 
water, you will find salt-water animals even more 
numerous and more interesting. 

In the waters of the ocean and upon its shores 
dwell vast numbers of creatures, whose presence 
is scarcely suspected by most people, and among 
these are innumerable forms not represented among 
land or fresh-water animals. Many of the salt- 
water animals are of great value or importance to 
mankind and all have modes of life, habits, or char- 
acteristics which are most interesting to study. 

The boy collector who has made a collection of 
fossils will find a great fascination in adding speci- 
mens of marine life to his collection, for many of 
the marine animals are identical with, or closely re- 
lated to, fossil forms and thus serve to link the 
present with the inconceivably distant past. 

For the boy who lives near the seacoast the ocean 

iso 



MARINE ANIMALS 151 

and its shores afford a wonderful field for collect- 
ing, and a collection of marine animals is invariably 
interesting and instructive. Moreover, and most 
important of all in the estimation of many, is the 
fact that you are not doing any injury when you 
collect marine animals, for they are so marvelously 
abundant and increase so rapidly that all the boy 
collectors in the country could not make any im- 
pression upon their numbers, even on one small 
portion of the coast. Marine animals may be di- 
vided into several general classes, or groups; such 
as, Shore animals, or those which are found be- 
tween high- and low-water mark; Shallow-water 
animals, which occur below low-water mark, but 
at no great depth; Deep-water animals, which are 
only found at considerable depths; and Surface 
animals, which swim or move about freely at or 
near the surface of the sea. 

Each of these groups grades into the next more 
or less, for many shallow-water forms also occur 
in deep water; many shore-living forms are found 
far below low-water mark; and many surface ani- 
mals live some of the time at the bottom of the 
sea. In still other instances the larval or young 
forms of surface animals live upon the bottom, 



152 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

while in other cases the young of sluggish or fixed- 
bottom forms swim freely about on or near the sur- 
face. 

For this reason the collector of marine life must 
be prepared to seek his specimens in all parts of the 
sea, even if he confines himself to one class of ma- 
rine life. If several boys work together it will be 
far more satisfactory, for no one boy or man can 
hope properly to preserve, prepare, classify, and 
arrange all the forms of salt-water life. If several 
boys work together, however, one may specialize 
on shells and molluscs, another on crustaceans, an- 
other on radiates, etc., and each boy can collect 
everything he finds and the specimens can then be 
properly divided among the several collectors. 

The best place to commence collecting marine 
life is along the shores between tides, and to prop- 
erly collect the shore life of even one district will 
occupy most of your time for one season. 

Shore Animals 

For collecting shore animals you will require 
comparatively few tools and appliances and all of 
these are easily obtained with little or no expense. 
The most important are: a stout shovel or spade; 



MARINE ANIMALS 153 

a trowel; a hoe or clam-digger; an old knife; for- 
ceps; a number of bottles or jars filled with alcohol 
or formaldehyde solution; an old basket or pail in 
which to carry the bottles, and a suit of old clothes 
and some rubber boots. 

The spade, hoe, and shovel may be left out and 
you will still be able to obtain a great many speci- 
mens, but you will find these tools mighty useful. 
Moreover, if the shore is rocky a good hammer and 
a short bar of iron will come in handy. 

Although rubber boots are mentioned these are 
not essential, for if you don't mind getting your 
feet wet you can wear old leather or canvas shoes, 
or you can even go barefooted if you wish. 

The best time to start out is just as the tide be- 
gins to fall and on days when the tide will be very 
low you will find more specimens than at other 
times, as more of the shore will be left by the re- 
ceding water. Even before the tide commences to 
ebb you will find a number of good specimens which 
have been thrown upon the beach by the waves 
among the dead seaweed and other trash. As a 
general rule such specimens are dead, worn, broken 
or faded, and are seldom really good specimens 
suitable for a collection; but in this flotsam and 



154 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

jetsam you will usually find a few things which may 
be saved and which are excellent for your pur- 
poses. Among these are the dull-yellow or brown 
parchment-like tgg cases of the big "winkle" shells 
( Fig. i ) . These look like a lot of lozenges strung 
together and often puzzle people who are ignorant 
of their origin. Usually these egg-cases are empty, 
as the young shells have emerged through tiny 
openings in the cases, but quite frequently, if you 
cut them open, you will find numbers of perfectly 
formed baby shells inside. 

Other objects which are common upon beaches 
are black, rubber-like, squarish affairs with slender 
filaments at the corners (Fig. 2). These are the 
eggs of the odd fishes known as "skates." Some- 
times you will find somewhat similar egg-cases with 
longer, twisted filaments and these you may know 
as the egg-cases of sharks. 

Among the trash upon the beaches you will also 
find many shells which are perfect enough to keep. 
The spiral or coiled forms, or univalves (Fig. 3), 
are usually fairly perfect unless water-worn, but 
the clam-like, or bivalve, shells (Fig. 4) should not 
be preserved unless both halves of the shell are con- 
nected, for a single valve is of no particular use or 




Fig. 2 





Fig. 4 



Fig. 5 

Fig. i. Eggs of winkle shell. Fig. 2. Skate's egg. Fig. 3. A 
univalve shell. Fig. 4. Bivalve shell. Fig. 5. Hermit crab in 
shell 

155 



156 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

interest except in the case of very rare species. 

In the half-decayed, damp seaweed you will be 
sure to find quite a number of small lively crusta- 
ceans and quite frequently a good-sized crab may 
be discovered. As the tide falls, walk along the 
edge of the water and look carefully for any crea- 
tures which may be moving about, either within the 
water or on the shore just exposed by the tide. 

You may not see anything at first, but if no ani- 
mals are visble you can often find them by digging 
into the damp sand or mud, for a majority of the 
shore animals live in holes or burrows. 

You may dig out a quantity of sand with the hoe 
or clam-digger and sift it through a sieve, you 
can go over it carefully by hand or you may hunt 
for the openings of the animals' homes and dig 
them out with the spade or shovel. Many of these 
burrowing creatures betray their whereabouts by 
little piles of sand above their homes, by tiny tubes 
projecting upwards, by holes in the surface of the 
shore, or by little jets of water which spurt up as 
you approach. A great many of these animals live 
but a few inches beneath the surface, while others 
burrow very deeply. Many of these creatures can 
dig very rapidly and if alarmed or disturbed will 



MARINE ANIMALS 157 

retreat to the bottoms of their holes and bury them- 
selves deeper and deeper almost as fast as the col- 
lector can dig with a spade. To secure these, shove 
the spade down its whole length with one stroke 
and in this way try to obtain the animals before 
they can get well started on their retreat. The far- 
ther the tide recedes the more abundant will you 
find the shore creatures and you should continue 
to collect until the rising tide again covers the 
beach. You should search mud flats and rocky 
shores as well as sand beaches, for each kind of 
shore has creatures peculiar to itself and while 
some forms may be found on all sorts of shores, 
others are only found among rocks, others in sand, 
and others in mud. 

It is far more disagreeable to collect on mud-flats 
than on clean sandy beaches, but many of the mud- 
loving creatures are far more interesting and beau- 
tiful than those which dwell in sand, and as a rule 
they are far more abundant. 

Rocky shores afford a very rich collecting ground 
and you may spend many hours or days searching 
under the rocks and stones, among the seaweed- 
filled crevices, and in the cool, clear, pools of water 
left by the falling tides. 



158 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

In such places you will find starfishes, various 
crabs and crustaceans, many hermit crabs — with 
their shell-houses on their backs (Fig. 5), spiny 
sea-urchins (Fig. 6), beautiful sea-anemones (Fig. 
7\ and many kinds of shells and other creatures. 

If you wade about, or paddle about in a boat 
among the spiles of old docks and wharves you 
will also find a great variety of animals, and while 
some of these may be the same as those found upon 
the shores, others will be quite different. Among 
these are the delicate Serpent-starfishes (Fig. 8) 
and beautiful naked-molluscs — gaudy with multi- 
colored, fringe-like organs (Fig. 9) — and which 
bear but little resemblance to the common shells 
and snails to which they are so closely related. 

Animals Below Low-Water Mark 

Although there is such an array of animals to be 
found between high and low water there are still 
more which are seldom seen above low-water mark. 
These are known as shallow-water animals, and 
while some of them may now and then be found in 
tide pools among rocks, or cast upon the shores 
and beaches, the majority must be sought in their 
natural haunts. 



MARINE ANIMALS 



159 




Fig. 8 





Fig. io Fig. g 

Fig. 7. Sea anemone. Fig. 8. Serpent starfish. Fig. 9. 
mollusc. Fig. 10. Swimming crab 



Naked 



i6o THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

To collect these you must not be afraid of get- 
ting wet, but must wade about knee-deep, or even 
deeper, while turning over stones, digging into the 
sand or mud, pulling up eel-grass and weeds, and in 
fact exploring every nook and crevice in which ani- 
mals could find a hiding place. In this work the 
dip-net and the hoe are the most useful tools, for a 
large proportion of the shallow-water animals 
swim freely and rapidly, especially if disturbed, 
and these must be captured with a net. Among 
this class of animals are the various swimming 
crabs (Fig. 10) and many other interesting crusta- 
ceans. Other forms of life dwell upon the bottom 
and may be readily scooped up with the net. Such 
are the sand-dollars (Fig. n) and sea-urchins, 
while still others live upon the under surfaces of 
stones or in crevices of the, rocks. Here you will 
find many sea-anemones, starfishes, crabs, serpent- 
starfish, shells, marine-worms, and even the beauti- 
ful native coral, which looks at first glance a great 
deal like a group of pretty sea-anemones (Fig. 12). 
It may surprise you to learn that corals are found 
in the North, for we usually associate them with 
warm or tropical seas, but the common native coral 
is found as far north as New England and often 




11 — Sand Dollar 



6 — Sea Urchin 




14 — Wood Bored by Ship Worms 
{See Chapter VII) 




30 — A Perfect Coral Specimen. 31 — Gorgonia with Expanded 

Animals 
{See Chapter VII) 



MARINE ANIMALS 



161 



occurs in tide pools or among rocks left exposed at 
low tide. In deep water there are numerous 
species of corals in the North and many of them, 
of very beautiful form, are found as far north as 
Greenland and the Arctic Ocean. Sponges are an- 
other group of marine animals which are commonly 





Fig. 12 

Fig. 12. Native coral animals look like sea anemones. Fig. 28. A 
shell mounted on a wire 



associated with the tropics, but all along the At- 
lantic coast of New England there are many forms 
of native sponges, both in deep and shallow water. 
The common scarlet sponge, the odd finger-sponges 
and numerous soft, branched sponges may all be 
found by the boy collector near shore, as he wades 
about in search of specimens. 

Another specimen which you should secure is the 



1 62 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

shipworm. In reality this creature is not a worm 
at all, but a bivalve shell related to the ordinary 
clam (Fig. 13). The correct name of this odd 
mollusc is Teredo and it is known to every boatman 
and sailor as its habits are very destructive to wood 
or timber under water. It is an easy matter to se- 
cure a piece of wood which has been attacked by 
the teredos, for every old spile, and timber and 
most pieces of driftwood are riddled with their 
holes. 

The holes are started when the teredos are very 
young and hence the exterior openings are very 
small and quite often a badly bored piece of wood 
looks quite sound and good from the outside. As 
soon as it is broken open, however, the wood will 
be found honeycombed with holes which run back 
and forth in every direction and while they cross 
and recross one another they never meet or join, 
although they are often so close together that a 
mere paper-thin partition separates them (Fig. 14). 
Each and every hole is lined throughout its length 
by a thin covering of shell and within these pearly 
tubes the shipworms live. If the piece of wood is 
old and dry you will seek in vain for the creatures 
which bored the holes, but if freshly cut from a 



MARINE ANIMALS 



163 




Fig. 13 



,<• iM 







Fig. 15 
Fig. 13. Teredo or ship worm. Fig. 15. Goose barnacles 



1 64 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

submerged timber, you will find the tubes occupied 
by the long, slender, worm-like teredos. These 
shipworms should not, however, be confused with 
the goose-barnacles (Fig. 15) which are often 
found clinging to ships, boats, floating timbers, and 
the spiles of wharves. The goose-barnacles are 
crustaceans and do not bore, and the only reason 
that barnacles trouble ships is because they drag in 
the water and impede the speed and progress of 
the vessel. 

As barnacles, shells, and weeds grow very rap- 
idly, ships and vessels must be frequently cleaned 
and scraped, and if you live within reach of a dry- 
dock where this is done, you will find a wonderful 
assortment of specimens in the material taken 
from the planking of the vessels. If the ships have 
come from the North after a long voyage you will 
find many rare northern species of animal life, 
while if they have been traveling in southern seas 
you will find many tropical forms. Whaling ships 
especially are good collecting places, for they are 
often at sea for two or three years without being 
scraped and in that time an immense amount of 
growth accumulates upon them. Quite often good- 
sized and beautiful corals are found upon the bot- 



MARINE ANIMALS 165 

toms of ships, as are sponges, sea fans, gorgonias, 
and beautiful sea-anemones, while crawling about 
among the accumulated growths you may find 
strange exotic crabs, crustaceans, naked molluscs, 
shells, and even small fish. 

Everything you collect will prove so interesting 
that you will be anxious to collect more specimens 
and you will soon long to secure specimens from 
the real bottom of the sea. 

Deep-Water Animals 

This is not at all difficult if you have the proper 
appliances and you will find the work even more 
interesting than collecting the shallow-water forms 
of life. 

Aside from a boat of some sort the appliances re- 
quired for deep-water collecting are a dredge, a 
trawl, tangles, and the usual bottles, jars, pail, for- 
ceps, and preservative solutions. A sieve will also 
be useful and a pair of oystermen's tongs will be 
very convenient at times. The dredge (Fig. 16) 
consists of an iron, rectangular frame A, to which 
a stout netting bag B is attached and over this is 
a strong, open-ended bag or cover of canvas C 
The net and canvas should be fastened to the frame 



166 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

by copper wire or tarred rope and the net may be 
either a ready-made dredge-net or it may be made 
from an old fish-net. The iron frame can be made 
by any blacksmith, or even by a boy who is familiar 
with iron work, and for your work a light frame of 




Fig. 16 
Fig. 17 

Fig. 16. Dredge. Fig. 17. Trawl. Fig. 18. Tangles 

34 -inch iron will be strong enough. Instead of us- 
ing a regular bag-net it is often advisable to leave 
the end of the net open and merely tie it together 
with rope or string. This saves dumping the 
dredge upside down and when used on muddy or 



MARINE ANIMALS 167 

soft bottoms it will prove a great convenience. 
The rope for lowering and hauling the dredge 
should be attached as shown in the illustration, as 
by this method the light line E will break and allow 
the dredge to swing end-on, in case it becomes 
fouled upon a rock, wreck or other object. A few 
feet in front of the dredge you should fasten a 
good-sized weight to the rope, as otherwise the 
edges of the dredge will lift and jump, as it is 
hauled over the bottom, and the catch will be small. 
The trawl (Fig. 17) is also made from an iron 
frame and a net, but the frame is very different in 
form from that of the dredge and there is no outer 
canvas covering to protect it from injury. The 
two runners of the trawl frame AA may be of 
light, flat iron and the beam B may be of wood or 
iron, or a piece of iron pipe may be used. Only the 
upper edge and sides of the net are attached to the 
frame, the lower edge being left free and weighted 
with pieces of lead as shown at C. The tangles 
(Fig. 18) are easier to make than either the dredge 
or trawl and in many places are even more use- 
ful. They consist of a number of pieces of iron 
chain CC fastened to a straight iron or wooden 
beam A and with masses of raveled rope fastened 



1 68 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

to the links. The ends of the beam should be pro- 
vided with runners, or wheels B, to prevent the 
ends from catching on the bottom or among rocks 
as well as to hold the beam a short distance above 
the bottom of the sea. 

The oyster-tongs (Fig. 19) may be bought ready- 
made and are inexpensive and as they are very use- 
ful things every boy collector of marine animals 
should have a pair. 

Each of these appliances has its own purpose and 
use, although all are used in deep-water collecting. 
The dredge should be used on muddy or sandy bot- 
toms, the trawl on sand, mud, or mixed bottoms, 
and the tangles in any place, but by preference upon 
rough or rocky spots, where the dredge or trawl 
would be torn and injured. 

The purpose of the dredge is to scrape up the 
sand or mud with the animals it contains, and in 
order that it may dig well into the material the 
edges of the frame are made sharp and flaring as 
shown in the cut. 

The trawl works in quite a different manner, for 
instead of scraping up the mud and sand the trawl 
merely captures creatures which project above the 
surface of the bottom or are moving near it, as well 



Fig. 19 





Fig. 21 



Fig. 20 




Fig. 22B 



Fig. 23 



Fig. 19. Oyster tongs. Fig. 20. How to dredge from a launch. 
Fig. 21. How to dredge from a sail boat. Fig. 22^4. Tray to 
go across a boat. Fig. 225. Sieve for side of boat. Fig. 23. 
Nippers for collecting corals, etc. 



170 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

as animals which are alarmed or disturbed by the 
trawl's approach. The tangles operate on an en- 
tirely different principle from either the dredge or 
trawl and capture marine creatures by entangling 
their spines, projections or fins in the masses of 
raveled rope. Sometimes a dredge or trawl is pro- 
vided with a tangle at the sides or end, so that 
one apparatus serves a double purpose. This is an 
excellent, plan if you have a large sailboat or a 
power boat to use in dredging or trawling, but if 
you use a small sailboat or a rowboat you must em- 
ploy a light, small dredge or trawl and separate 
tangles. 

To use the dredge, trawl, or tangles they are 
dragged along over the bottom from a moving boat, 
but in order to accomplish the work safely and suc- 
cessfully you must know how to handle the boat 
as well as the proper method of dragging the ap- 
pliances. To dredge or trawl from a rowboat it is 
only necessary to throw the appliance overboard, 
and after paying out the proper amount of rope row 
along until you are tired or until you think enough 
of the bottom has been covered. To tow a light 
dredge or trawl is often hard work in a rowboat, 
especially in rather deep water, and you'll find it 



MARINE ANIMALS 171 

much easier if you select a place where there is a 
good, strong tide or current and then row with the 
tide. In fact it is quite often possible to let the 
current or tide carry the boat along without effort 
on your part, save to keep the boat in the proper 
position. If the current is very strong and the 
boat is fairly large the dredge line may be paid out 
from the bow and the boat will then drag the dredge 
exactly as if she was dragging her anchor. In the 
case of a smaller boat, or where there is less cur- 
rent, a bridle-rope may be fastened to bow and stern 
and the boat may then be allowed to drift sideways 
to the current. With a power boat the work is 
still easier and the only trouble will be to run slowly 
enough to prevent the line from catching in the 
propeller. To prevent this it is often a good plan 
to pass the dredge-line from the bow and run the 
boat backwards, which is the usual method fol- 
lowed by large vessels in deep-sea dredging. If, 
however, the line is paid out amidships and the boat 
is kept circling toward that side, as shown in Fig. 
20, there will be no danger of fouling the rope, un- 
less the current is so strong that it carries the boat 
off her course. 

If you use a sailboat the dredge or trawl should 



172 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

be dragged slowly along behind the vessel and in 
order to proceed slowly enough it is often necessary 
to reef down the sails, even in a light wind. The 
best position for dredging with a sailboat is to lead 
the rope of the dredge over the windward quarter 
and sail on the wind (Fig. 21). It is a dangerous 
matter to attempt to dredge when running before 
the wind, and if you attempt to dredge while run- 
ning close-hauled or into the wind you will find it 
difficult to keep a steady pull on the line. Another 
advantage of sailing on the wind when dredging 
is that in case the dredge becomes fouled the boat 
may be brought into the wind before the rope 
breaks or the dredge is injured. A boat sailing in 
this position is also more under perfect control than 
at any other time. 

When the dredge, trawl, or tangles have been 
drawn along until you think there is a good catch, 
pull the apparatus to the surface, souse it up or 
down in the water a few times to wash out the mud 
and slime, and then pull it into the boat. In order 
to save the mess and dirt from cluttering up the 
boat it is a good plan to have a rough wooden plat- 
form, or tray, with pieces of wood an inch or two 
in height along the sides, which will fit across the 



MARINE ANIMALS 173 

boat from rail to rail (Fig. 22 a), or a wire netting 
sieve may be fastened to the boat as in Fig. 22B. 

The dredge or trawl may be dumped upon this 
and the contents looked over and the worthless 
stuff may then be easily dumped overboard without 
dirtying the interior of the boat. If you have been 
using the dredge you will probably find that a very 
large portion of its contents is sand, mud, or similar 
material, but in this you will find a large number of 
interesting forms of animal life. Crustaceans of 
odd and unusual forms, crabs, annelids, starfish, 
sea-urchins, sand-dollars, bryozoans, hydroids, and 
numerous shells are usually brought up by this 
method. The trawl, on the other hand, will seldom 
contain much bottom material, but larger and more 
active species of marine animals will be captured 
in its net. Swimming- and spider-crabs, fishes, 
shells, various molluscs, crustaceans, and a great 
many other things are captured by trawling. On 
the tangles you will find a great many starfishes, 
sea-urchins, bryozoans, and other creatures, for 
anything which is rough or spiny that the tangles 
pass over will be entangled and brought to the sur- 
face in the mass of rope-ends. 

The boy who cannot have trawls, dredges, or 



174 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

tangles of his own need not be discouraged, for by 
going out on the oyster steamers and looking over 
the material they bring up on dredges and tangles 
you will find a great number of specimens. 

Still another method of collecting deep-water 
animal life is by means of the oyster-tongs. It 
takes quite a little practice to learn to use these, 
but it is a trick easily acquired and by means of the 
tongs you can obtain many large shells, starfishes, 
crabs, and lots of small stones and dead shells upon 
which you will find sea-anemones, ascidians, hy- 
droids, and other forms of life. 

If you live in the South, or spend your winters 
near the southern sea coasts, you can obtain very 
interesting collections of marine life. 

In most southern seas the water is so clear you can 
see the bottom at great depths and with a pair of 
tongs or nippers you can readily secure fine speci- 
mens of corals, gorgonias, beautiful sea-anemones, 
curious crabs, and many species of sea-urchins. 
Whenever you bring up a mass of dead coral, a 
stone, or other object from the bottom — either in 
the North or South — you should examine it with 
care for a great many rare and interesting creatures 
live in the crevices of rocks and corals, under 



MARINE ANIMALS 175 

stones, or attached to dead shells. The best form 
of tongs, or nippers, for obtaining specimens where 
the bottom is visble is shown in Fig. 23. These 
can easily be made by any blacksmith for a small 
sum and with them you can grasp and lift very 
heavy objects from the bottom of the sea. The 
stationary jaw A should be firmly fastened to a 
long, light pole — bamboo is excellent — and the mov- 
able jaw B may be operated either by a rope or by 
another smaller pole. Personally I prefer one pole 
and a rope, but many people find two poles more 
convenient. It is with such tools that the Ber- 
mudians and West Indians obtain the specimens of 
corals, sponges, sea-fans, etc., which they sell to 
tourists. They are also used in catching scallops, 
shells, and pearl oysters in many portions of the 
tropics. 

If you live in a vicinity where the lobster fisher- 
men ply their trade you will be able to secure many 
fine specimens of crabs, shells, and other denizens 
of deep water. These crawl into the lobster-pots 
and as they are of no value to the lobstermen they 
are usually killed and thrown away or broken up 
for bait. If you accompany the lobstermen as they 
haul their pots you can collect all the specimens 



176 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

you desire and if you cannot do this you can easily 
arrange with the lobstermen to bring in any speci- 
mens they find. They will usually be very glad to 
do this and they'll be only too glad to furnish you 
with specimens if you pay them a few cents apiece 
for the animals you desire for your collection. 
Lobster-pots are cheap and are easy to make and 
you'll find it a lot of fun to have your own pots and 
set them. 

Still rarer and stranger specimens may be ob- 
tained of the fishermen who sail from the various 
New England ports for the Georges and Grand 
Banks. These men often obtain remarkable and 
little-known specimens which become caught or en- 
tangled on their deep-sea lines. While such things 
are usually thrown away as worthless the fishermen 
will be glad to save them and bring them to you if 
you make it worth their while and furnish them 
with formaldehyde solution in which to preserve 
the things they capture. Even without this they 
will be able to keep many specimens, for a large 
proportion of the things they find upon their fish- 
ing lines are large and of such a character that they 
may be easily dried. Many of the finest and rarest 
forms of deep-sea life in our great museums 



MARINE ANIMALS 177 

were obtained from the Gloucester fishermen and 
many species secured by them have never been 
found in any other way. 

Of course it will be more fun and you will ap- 
preciate your collections more if you obtain the 
specimens by your own efforts. Whether you use 
pots or traps, tongs, trawl, tangles, or dredges, you 
will find deep-water collecting really fascinating, for 
you never know when some weird, new creature 
may be drawn to the surface from the unseen 
depths. 

Surface Animals 

Notwithstanding the great number of creatures 
which the collector can find upon the seashore and 
in deep and shallow water, there are certain forms 
of life which live only upon, or near, the surface 
of the sea. 

Many of these are very strange and interesting, 
others are remarkable for their beauty or form or 
color, while still others are identical with shore and 
bottom animals in other stages of growth, but are 
so distinct in appearance that you would never guess 
they were even related. 

To collect the surface animals the most useful 



178 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

appliances are dip-nets and towing-nets. The dip- 
net, for surface collecting, should be of fine muslin 
or coarse cheese cloth and if possible you should 
also have an ordinary crab-net or minnow-net as 
well. The towing-net or drag-net should be of fine 
cloth, such as muslin, cheese-cloth or bobbinet, and 
should be of round-bottomed form with a heavy 
hoop. Instead of a handle this net is provided 
with a bridle of small line so that it may be attached 
to a rope and dragged behind a boat (Fig. 24). In 
addition to the nets you should have the usual jars, 
preservative solutions, forceps, etc. At first sight 
you may not think there is any life upon the surface 
of the water and you will very probably consider 
it useless to drag a net along, but a great surpise 
will await you if you tow the net through the ap- 
parently lifeless water for a little distance. 

Many of the forms of life which inhabit the sur- 
face of the water are practically invisible, when 
seen from above, and many of them are so trans- 
parent that you can scarcely see them, even after 
they have been caught and placed in a jar or pail of 
water. Some of them become quite opaque when 
preserved in alcohol or formaline, however, and 
make very interesting and attractive specimens. 



MARINE ANIMALS 179 

Surface animals are most numerous in the even- 
ing in summer and in calm weather, and their 
abundance is proved by the phosphorescence in the 




Fig. 24 



Fig. 25 




Fig. 26 
Fig. 24. Towing net. Fig. 25. Pteropod. Fig. 26. Argonauts. 

water, for the lights and glow in the sea are all 
caused by marine animals. A great proportion of 
these are extremely small, or even microscopic, and 
such of course will neither be captured in an or- 



180 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

dinary net or seen by the collector if they are 
caught. In addition to these there are a great many 
large or fairly large forms which you can obtain. 
After dragging the net behind the boat for some 
time lift it up and turn it inside out in a bucket of 
fresh sea-water and if you have had any success 
at all you will find quite an assortment of creatures 
which you have never before seen and which you 
never suspected were found in the water. There 
may be a few fish; perhaps some small crabs; and 
in all probability a number of jelly-fish. Besides 
these you will find some very peculiar crustaceans, 
so transparent that only their brilliant eyes and 
the contents of their digestive organs are visible as 
they swim about. To see these and other trans- 
parent creatures to the best advantage they should 
be placed in a dish of sea-water upon a dark back- 
ground and if examined at night most of them will 
appear very beautiful with their pale phosphores- 
cent glow lighting up their surroundings. In fact, 
you will soon discover that you can learn a great 
deal about marine life and can obtain a great deal 
of pleasure by keeping the various creatures 
which you collect alive for some time. In many 
cases the habits of marine animals are more in- 



MARINE ANIMALS 181 

teresting than the creatures themselves and after 
watching them for a time you can either preserve 
them or throw them into the sea again. 

Some of the jellyfishes may be preserved, but 
many of them are worthless as specimens and are 
only interesting to study while living. A great 
many of the surface animals are very small, but 
they are none the less interesting. The tiny Ptero- 
pod shells which swim freely at the surface are very 
odd (Fig. 25), the glass-like young of the conger 
eels are remarkable as they swim about with only a 
pair of eyes to mark their presence, and squids or 
cuttlefish are always interesting. If you are drag- 
ging the surface in southern waters, or even off 
some portions of the northern coasts, you may per- 
haps secure a specimen of the paper nautilus or 
argonaut. Although poets have sung of these 
creatures as sailing the sea, yet in reality they never 
sail, but swim or crawl about, for the argonaut is 
really a species of cuttlefish, related to the squids 
and octopus (Fig. 26). The true nautilus of the 
Indian Ocean is also a cuttlefish, but is very distinct 
from the argonaut. Many of these larger crea- 
tures may be captured with the dip-net if you see 
them in the water near the boat and after you have 



i8'2 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

been collecting a short time you will spy things 
which you overlooked before and will find there are 
many interesting creatures to be seen swimming 
about. Quite frequently the dip-net or the drag- 
net will be found quite filled with a soft, jelly-like, 
slimy substance which has little resemblance to ani- 
mal life. If this is dumped into a bucket of water 
it will resolve itself into vast numbers of small 
creatures and some of these are wonderfully 
strange in form and habits. A great many of these 
are old friends in new shapes and while you can 
scarcely believe it, yet the big-headed, goggle-eyed 
creatures (Fig. 27A) are really baby crabs, the 
funny shapeless objects with delicate waving hairs 
are young oysters (Fig. 27B), the transparent 
things with numerous arms or appendages are the 
early stages of sea-urchins and starfishes (Fig. 
27c), and, strangest of all the rounded, rapidly 
swimming animals like Fig. 27D are really bar- 
nacles. It invariably surprises the amateur natu- 
ralist to learn that such things as starfishes, sea- 
urchins, oysters, and barnacles swim about, for we 
are so accustomed to thinking of them as slow-mov- 
ing, sluggish, or fixed animals that the idea of their 
swimming seems almost incredible. This is espe- 



MARINE ANIMALS 



183 



daily the case with barnacles, but barnacles are true 
crustaceans and in their internal structure are very 




Fig. 27A. Young crab. B. Young oyster. C. Young starfish. 

D. Young barnacle 

similar to crabs, lobsters, and shrimps. About the 
only difference is that barnacles develop shells within 
which to dwell and settle down to a sedentary life 
in one spot instead of leading a nomadic existence 
like their cousins the crabs. 



i84 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

Preserving, Preparing, and Classifying Marine 

Animals 

The majority of marine animals are very easy to 
preserve and prepare and in most cases it is only 
necessary to drop them into alcohol or formalde- 
hyde solution. Other animals are more attractive 
when dried, while some things are so difficult to 
preserve that they are seldom seen in the largest 
museums and even when they are preserved they 
are so shapeless, distorted, or unsatisfactory that 
they are not worth the time and trouble expended 
upon them. 

Practically all the larger crustaceans, such as 
crabs, lobsters, etc., may be dried, but they should 
first be soaked thoroughly in alcohol or formaline. 
They should then be placed upon a board, their legs 
and appendages should be arranged in a natural 
attitude, and the specimens laid aside in a dry, cool 
spot until thoroughly hard and rigid. They should 
then be mounted upon suitable bases or pedestals, 
by placing a column or support of some sort be- 
neath the body. Either a little peg, or several pegs 
of wood, bottle-corks, or plaster columns may be 
used as supports and the specimen should be se- 



MARINE ANIMALS 185 

curely glued to these. Where the tips of the legs 
or claws touch the base they may be fastened with 
drops of glue to secure them more rigidly. 

If the natural colors fade the crustaceans may be 
touched up with oil colors and a fine brush, but they 
should never be varnished or shellacked. All dan- 
ger of cracking or breaking as the specimens dry 
may be avoided by adding a small quantity of gly- 
cerin to the preservative solution, but if too much 
is added the specimens will never dry. 

Shells may all be dried after soaking in alcohol 
and then removing the animals, but it is always a 
good plan to preserve a few in formaldehyde with 
the animals in the shells. Shells may be mounted 
upon flat bases, or in the case of univalves the 
shell may be supported upon a stiff wire set into a 
base. The upper end of the wire should be wound 
with cotton, coated with glue, and set into the shell as 
shown in Fig 28 (p. 161). Starfishes, sea-urchins, 
and sand-dollars should also be soaked in preserva- 
tive and dried, but starfishes should first be soaked in 
fresh water for a few hours until they are plump 
and fully expanded. They may then be soaked in 
formaline and then spread in a natural position on 
a board to dry. Oftentimes starfishes dried in a 



i86 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

fairly warm oven or upon a bed of hot sand will be 
much plumper and more natural than if dried in a 
cool spot. Some of the serpent starfishes break into 
many pieces if dropped into alcohol or formaline 
and in such cases the creatures may be killed by 
placing them in fresh water, or in benzine or gaso- 
lene. 

Before killing starfish, sea-anemones, marine- 
worms, and many other of the lower forms of ma- 
rine life it is a good plan to add some magnesium- 
salt solution to the sea-water in which they are 
placed. This not only stupefies the creatures and 
renders them insensible to any pain or sensation, 
but it also causes them to expand very beautifully. 
Shells may thus be treated and preserved with the 
animals fully expanded, whereas if placed directly 
in alcohol or formaline the animals will be drawn 
out of sight within the shells. 

Sponges also may be soaked in preservative and 
dried, but corals must be treated in a different man- 
ner. Corals, when alive, are very brilliantly col- 
ored, for the animals cover the entire surface and 
when expanded appear like sea-anemones (Fig. 29). 
By placing the freshly obtained, live corals in water 
with magnesium-salt solution added, the animals 



MARINE ANIMALS 187 

will expand and they may then be preserved in al- 
cohol or formaline. Such specimens are always 
of great interest, for few people realize what coral 
animals look like. The majority of corals, how- 
ever, are preserved dry and bleached and to do this 
properly you should first soak them in fresh water 
and potash (or lye) until the animal matter is dis- 




Fig. 29. A living coral with some of the animals expanded 

solved, after which they should be thoroughly 
washed in fresh water — the stream from a garden 
hose is excellent — and the cleaned coral should then 
be dried and bleached in the brightest sunshine. 
The beauty and perfection of coral specimens de- 
pends upon the care used in cleaning and drying, 
for if any animal matter is left adhering to the 



188 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

coral, or if the specimens are dried in the shade or 
are exposed to alternate rain and sun, the specimens 
will be discolored, mildewed, and moldy. Well- 
preserved corals should have every calicle clear and 
distinct and should be snowy white in every part 
(Fig. 30). Gorgonias, which include the so-called 
"sea-whips" and "sea-fans," are simply dried after 
soaking in preservative solutions, although some of 
the larger kinds may be kept in alcohol or formaline 
with the animals expanded by first treating them 
with magnesium as already described (Fig. 31). 

Worms, annelids, naked-molluscs, squids, jelly- 
fish, and the various larval forms of marine life, 
as well as all other soft-bodied creatures, must be 
kept in alcohol or formaline, and the only way to 
determine whether or not such things can be pre- 
served is to experiment. Finally, there are the sea- 
weeds, and these make very attractive and interest- 
ing collections. To preserve seaweeds, first place 
the specimens in clean sea-water and separate the 
various individuals and varieties. Then with the 
forceps lift the specimen to be prepared and drop it 
into a dish of fresh (not salt) water and slip a piece 
of white, stiff paper or thin Bristol-board beneath 
it. Spread the weed in a neat and pretty position 



MARINE ANIMALS 189 

over the paper, while holding the latter with just 
enough water to cover it, for if there is too much 
water over the card the weed will wobble and float 
about and you'll find it almost impossible to arrange 
it. When the weed is properly spread lift the 
paper carefully, drain off the surplus water and set 
it upon a clean pad of blotting paper to dry. If 
desired a second sheet of blotting paper may be 
placed over the weed and pressed firmly upon it 
and if this is done carefully very flat and smooth 
specimens may be obtained. The preserved sea- 
weeds may be kept in an album or portfolio or they 
may be prepared for exhibition by placing them in 
glass-covered mounts such as are used for insects. 
In classifying the marine collections great care 
should be used and you will have to depend largely 
upon text books and museum collections for identi- 
fying your specimens. Nearly all the ordinary 
forms of marine life are described and figured in 
various books and if you cannot find a figure or de- 
scription which fits a certain specimen take the 
specimen to some zoologist who has studied marine 
life. It may prove to be some common, well-known 
thing which the books omitted, but it may be some 
new and undescribed species, for despite the care 



iqo THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

and attention which scientists have given to marine 
life new and unknown things are being constantly 
discovered. 

In labeling your marine specimens follow out 
practically the same methods as described for other 
specimens. Provide each specimen with a number 
and catalogue it and be sure to have this number 
attached to the specimen and not merely in the bot- 
tle, tray, or case with it. In addition provide each 
specimen with a good label. In the case of dried 
specimens this may be fastened to the specimen or 
to its mount, but in the case of specimens in pre- 
servative solutions the labels should be placed in the 
bottles or jars. Where the label is to be kept in a 
solution you should use tough parchment paper and 
indelible or waterproof ink. Strive to make your 
collection of marine specimens as instructive as 
possible. Keep each group of creatures by itself, 
all the molluscs together, all the radiates together, 
etc., and aim to study and learn the habits, lives, 
and peculiarities of the specimens while you collect 
them. If you do this you will not only find a 
greater interest in your collection but you will 
really have made collecting worth while. 



PART II 
CAMERA AND MICROSCOPE 



CHAPTER VIII 

PHOTOGRAPHING WILD THINGS 

IN many ways a collection of good photographs 
of wild creatures in their native haunts, of in- 
sects, or even of plants and trees, is far more satis- 
factory than preserved specimens. 

It requires just as much, or even more, skill to 
obtain photographs than to collect the objects them- 
selves; they require far less care and trouble, they 
are not so easily injured, and they occupy far less 
space. Moreover, and perhaps most important of 
all, it is not necessary to destroy life of any sort 
in order to collect by photography and good photo- 
graphs of birds, animals, insects, and other crea- 
tures give a far better idea of their appearance in 
life than the most carefully prepared specimens. 

In the case of certain things — such as birds and 

birds' eggs — a collection of photographs is the only 

sort of collection to be encouraged, and the boy 

who hunts birds and their eggs with a camera will 

193 



194 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

find it far more interesting "sport" than hunting 
with a gun. It takes far greater skill, a much 
greater knowledge of woodcraft, and a more in- 
timate familiarity with the ways of birds to stalk 
them with a camera and get a good negative than 
to follow them with dog and gun and get a good 
shot. 

It may be true that "anything which can be seen 
can be photographed," but the boy who hunts with a 
camera will find that many a wild thing is seen which 
cannot be photographed, save after many attempts 
and a vast expenditure of time, patience, and per- 
severance. But when at last you do obtain a good 
picture you will feel amply rewarded for all your 
trouble and will have a far more satisfactory trophy 
of your skill than any stuffed bird, mounted head, 
or antlers. 

Birds are perhaps the most difficult subjects to 
photograph, but there are many species which make 
excellent and easy subjects, while their nests, eggs, 
and young make the most attractive and interesting 
pictures imaginable. Animals of every kind, from 
moose and bears to tiny mice and shrews, may be 
snapped by the hunter with a camera and in the in- 
sect world there is a wonderful and almost un- 




Photograph of Whippoorwill and Gray Squirrel from Life 

(.See Chapter VIII) 




o 
o 






<v 

a, 



bfl 





PL, 

in 



»*m ^ 



PHOTOGRAPHING WILD THINGS 195 

known field for the photographer of wild things. 
Frogs, turtles, snakes, reptiles of all kinds and even 
fishes may be photographed quite readily and with 
proper appliances the lower forms of marine life — 
and even the invisible microscopic creatures — may 
be pictured by the camera. 

Modern photography is a marvelous thing and 
each day improvements and discoveries are being 
made which make it even more remarkable and 
widen its field. A few years ago motion pictures 
of the commonest things were hailed as the last 
word in photography, but to-day the uttermost 
parts of the world — strange races and savage 
beasts — are shown before us with all the motion 
and color of life, and even the depths of the sea 
and its strange inhabitants are reproduced in mov- 
ing pictures (Fig. 1). Not many years ago it 
would have been impossible to photograph birds, 
animals, or insects in their natural haunts, but to- 
day any boy who can secure a good camera may ob- 
tain a wonderful collection of valuable and interest- 
ing nature photographs. 

Many things may be secured with an ordinary 
camera of short focus and small size, but for good 
work and to succeed in photographing living wild 



196 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

creatures you must have a camera adapted to the 
work. 

Such a camera is not necessarily very expensive. 
Of course if you expect to picture shy birds or ani- 
mals, birds in flight, and many other similar things 
you will require a very rapid and expensive lens, a 
reflex or graflex camera, perhaps a telephoto at- 
tachment and numerous other expensive appliances. 
It is, however, far better to begin on simple sub- 
jects and later attempt more difficult things after 
you have become proficient. Birds' nests and eggs 
are perhaps the easiest subjects for beginners. A 
short time exposure is preferable to an instantane- 
ous exposure in all cases and when photographing 
nests and eggs this is possible, whereas in photo- 
graphing living birds, animals, insects, etc., an in- 
stantaneous picture must be taken, When photo- 
graphing nests use every care not to disturb the 
nest or its surroundings. If the nest is hidden 
among brush or foliage do not cut the surroundings 
but push them gently to one side or both and if 
necessary tie them in position and replace them in 
their original position after the picture is taken. 
Never touch eggs or nests, for if you do the parent 
may desert her nest and leave the eggs to spoil. 



PHOTOGRAPHING WILD THINGS 197 

If the nest is in an open situation there will be little 
difficulty in securing good, even lighting, but if in 
the woods or in brush there will be patches of light 
and shadow thrown upon the nest and these must 
be avoided. Streaks and spots of brilliant light 
confuse the outlines of the picture and while mak- 
ing the exposure a cloth or some other screen — 
even a large hat will answer — should be held be- 
tween the sun and the nest so as to cut off the 
direct light and produce a soft diffused light. Stop 
the lens down to secure sharp details and give an 
ample time for full exposure; fuzzy, indistinct, or 
under-exposed, contrasty pictures are not suitable 
for nature photographs, no matter how "artistic" 
they may be. Always endeavor to photograph the 
nests with enough of their surroundings to give a 
good idea of their situation. Sometimes it's an 
excellent plan to make a photograph of the nest as 
it appears nearly or quite concealed among the grass 
or leaves and then take another picture with the 
foliage pushed aside to reveal the nest and eggs 
exposed. The greatest interest in many nests is 
the manner in which they are hidden or the form 
in which they are built to avoid being seen. In 
such cases two pictures should always be taken. 



198 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

Thus the nest of the oven-bird is roofed over and 
is scarcely distinguishable from the ground upon 
which it is placed. A picture of such a nest, taken 
from the point of view of the passer-by is interesting 
and valuable as illustrating the clever manner in 
which the nest is designed to avoid discovery. Such 
a picture would not give any idea of the actual con- 
struction of the nest or the appearance of the eggs, 
and hence a second photograph should be taken 
with the camera placed close to the nest and near 
enough the same level to show the opening and the 
eggs within. In the case of nests in tall trees one 
picture should be made from the ground showing 
the nest in the tree and another picture should be 
made at close range to show the form and structure 
of the nest and the eggs it contains. A great many 
birds lay their eggs in holes in banks, trees, and 
similar situations and to secure pictures of these, 
showing the interior of the nests and the eggs, 
would necessitate injuring or destroying the birds' 
homes. In such instances pictures of the banks or 
trees showing the entrance to the nests will be suffi- 
cient. 

Quite frequently you will find nests containing 
young birds and these make very interesting pic- 



PHOTOGRAPHING WILD THINGS 199 

tures. In photographing young birds in the nest 
you should work as rapidly as possible and in most 
cases an instantaneous exposure will be necessary. 
Oftentimes, however, the youngsters are good 
posers and will remain immovable while a short 
time-exposure is being secured. Even more attrac- 
tive are pictures of the old birds on their nests and 
it is often very easy to secure splendid bird pictures 
in this way. Some birds sit so closely that the 
camera may be set up and the picture taken without 
disturbing the parent bird, while others will slip 
away from their nests at the approach of the in- 
truding photographer. Even if the bird is not on 
the nest, her picture may often be secured by set- 
ting up the camera, arranging a long tube or a 
thread to spring the shutter and then retiring for 
some distance and waiting for the bird to return to 
her nest. The shutter may then be sprung and 
the picture obtained. In some cases the camera 
may be left in plain view, but as a rule it should be 
concealed or screened by leaves, boughs, or other 
foliage. 

Some birds are so wary that it is necessary to 
place the camera in position and leave it for hours 
or even days until the birds become accustomed to 



200 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

its presence. In order to avoid loss or injury to 
the camera an imitation camera made of wood or 
pasteboard may be used and after the birds have 
become convinced that the strange object is not 
dangerous the real camera may be substituted and 
the pictures secured. Photographs of hawks' nests 
and the nests of other wary birds in trees may often 
be obtained by arranging a thread or string from 
the shutter so that the bird itself makes the ex- 
posure when it settles upon its nest. 

Birds feeding their young also make excellent 
subjects and they are often so intent upon satisfy- 
ing their youngsters' appetites that they pay little 
attention to the photographer or his camera. Of 
course such pictures, as well as pictures of the birds 
upon their nests, must be instantaneous, and a very 
rapid lens and the most rapid plates must be used. 
Orthochromatic plates give far better color values 
than ordinary plates, but they are not as rapid and 
while they are advisable where a full exposure is 
possible they can scarcely be recommended for in- 
stantaneous work, save in bright sunlight. Even 
if the pictures of the nests or birds are small they 
can be enlarged, if the outlines are clear and the 
details sharp, but the larger the subject in the pic- 



PHOTOGRAPHING WILD THINGS 201 

ture the better, and to obtain large pictures a long- 
focus, good lens is essential. Small film cameras 
may be used in some cases if you have nothing bet- 
ter, but a plate camera with a long draw bellows is 
preferable. Plate cameras are better than film 
cameras for nature work for it is an important mat- 
ter to focus the object to be taken on the ground 
glass, and, moreover, as each exposure will be made 
under totally distinct conditions every negative 
should be developed separately. 

Use great care in developing, using some rather 
slow developer in order that the plate may be un- 
der perfect control. Have two solutions ready, one 
a weak, powerful developer for under-exposures 
and the other a strong, slow-acting developer 
for over-exposures. Start the plate in the weak 
solution and if it shows symptoms of full or over- 
exposure immediately transfer it to the other tray. 
Develop for detail and carry development to the 
limit. Personally I prefer rodinal for the short and 
instantaneous exposures and hydrochinon for the 
others. A very thin negative full of detail may be 
made into a dense, fully developed negative by im- 
mersion in hydrochinon with a little bromide of 
potassium solution added, and by using rodinal first 



202 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

and hydrochinon afterwards almost any negative 
may be saved, except those which are hopelessly 
underexposed. Rodinal is particularly valuable as 
it never fogs a plate and negatives may be left in it 
for hours without danger. Hydrochinon does not 
fog but it produces contrasty, dense negatives, and 
is excellent for full time exposures and over-ex- 
posures as well as for deepening the development 
after the details have been brought out by the 
rodinal. 

In warm weather negatives frequently soften or 
"frill" during development, fixing, or washing. 
This may be entirely overcome by adding a few 
drops of formaldehyde to a tray of water and by im- 
mersing the negatives in this solution. The plates 
should not be kept in the solution too long however. 
A good way to judge of the time they should be 
immersed is to press upon the film on the plate with 
your finger nail. As soon as the film loses its soft, 
slimy, feeling and your nail cuts into it with a little 
snap the plate should be taken from the solution. 
Never treat the plates with formaline before de- 
veloping, but either dip them into it after develop- 
ment and before fixing, or better still, after they are 
fixed and before they are washed. Formaline has 



PHOTOGRAPHING WILD THINGS ~ 203 

a wonderful property of removing the hypo and 
plates soaked in the solution after fixing may be 
washed in half the time required to remove the 
hypo when they are not treated with the formaline. 

Many of the foregoing suggestions apply equally 
well to photographing the birds themselves, but of 
course it is seldom possible to set up a camera on a 
tripod to take the birds' pictures. Where a sleepy 
owl is found dozing during the day this is possible 
and many hawks and other birds return repeatedly 
to the same perch so that a camera may be set up 
and arranged with a string to snap the shutter so 
that the bird takes its own picture, but these cases 
are the exceptions rather than the rule. Sometimes 
a small tent may be concealed near the haunts or 
nests of birds and the pictures may be taken 
through an aperture or the camera may be hidden 
outside and may be sprung from within the shelter. 

By far the greater number of bird photographs 
are snap-shots, however, and the success of the 
photographer depends upon his knowledge of bird- 
life and habits, his ability to approach the birds 
without alarming them, and his skill with the 
camera, as well as upon the quality of the camera 
and lens. Moreover, it is far easier to secure pic- 



204 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

tures of wild birds in some places than in others. 
On bird preserves, or where birds are rigidly pro- 
tected, in rookeries and on the breeding grounds 
of water-fowl and seabirds it is usually very easy 
to secure good pictures. Many of the wildest and 
shyest birds become ridiculously tame when at their 
breeding grounds and will scarcely move out of 
your way as you walk along. Gulls, terns, pelicans, 
herons, and many other birds are about as tame 
and as easily photographed as domestic fowls when 
at their rookeries or breeding places, and any one 
can secure all the pictures he desires with an 
ordinary camera in such places. 

To take pictures of wild birds in the woods is 
quite a different matter and if you get one good 
negative out of scores of exposures you are doing 
well. But if you expect to get any results in this 
class of nature photography you must have a long- 
draw camera and a lens which is exceedingly rapid 
and which will produce a very large image on the 
plate. Telephoto lenses are all very well for 
photographing distant objects, but they are slow 
and cumbersome and cannot be used to advantage 
in securing snap-shots of wild birds in the woods 
and fields. A very good arrangement is to use a 



PHOTOGRAPHING WILD THINGS 205 

large lens on a fairly small camera. A lens which 
is designed to cover a plate of 8x10, 11x14 or 
some similar size, if fitted to a 4x5 or 5x7 camera, 
will produce a very large picture without the 
trouble of carrying a big camera. Of course the 
field of such a large lens is small and it is very 
difficult to be sure that the object snapped will ap- 
pear upon the plate, but after a little practise you 
will learn to judge directions and distances so well 
that you will seldom have trouble on this score. 

Before using the camera you should set it up and 
focus it on objects at various distances and mark a 
scale upon the bed to guide you. Even with a 
rather small lens very satisfactory results may be 
obtained, for if the lens is a good one and gives a 
sharp, clear image the picture may be successfully 
enlarged. The photograph of the butcher-bird or 
shrike in the illustration (Fig. 2) was a mere speck 
on the original negative and many of the most strik- 
ing and remarkable bird photographs ever taken 
were very small indeed upon the original plates. 

Photographing wild animals is often far easier 
than photographing birds. Large creatures, such 
as deer, moose, etc., may often be taken very easily 
during the close season or on game preserves, but 



206 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

even the smaller species, such as rabbits, squirrels, 
and wild mice are not difficult subjects (Fig. 3). 
Very often these chaps may be attracted within 
camera range by means of bait and frequently the 
animal photographer arranges a string from the 
camera so that the unsuspecting animal springs the 
shutter and takes his own picture as he nibbles the 
bait or passes along his accustomed runway or path. 
Many very remarkable photographs of wild animals 
have been taken by flashlight. These are secured, 
either by approaching the creatures at night in a 
boat or canoe and firing the flash by hand, or by 
arranging threads or strings so that the animal, 
when taking the bait or passing along the runway, 
fires the flash and springs the shutter of the camera. 
Photographing animals and birds is an art in it- 
self and a volume could be written upon the sub- 
ject, but the above hints may serve to help the boy 
collector with a camera and patience, skill, and prac- 
tise will do far more than anything else to insure 
success in this branch of photography. 

Birds and animals are not by any means the only 
wild creatures which make valuable and interest- 
ing pictures, however. Frogs and turtles, reptiles, 
snakes, and fishes may be photographed quite 



PHOTOGRAPHING WILD THINGS 207 

easily. Sometimes a turtle, frog, or snake may be 
snapped as the creature suns itself upon some ob- 
ject, but as a rule frogs, turtles, and fish must be 
photographed in an aquarium at home. For this 
purpose the aquarium should be square or rec- 
tangular with flat sides and very narrow or shal- 
low from one side to the other. Ordinary aqua- 
riums are usually too wide, but this fault may be 
overcome by fitting a sheet of glass so that it may be 
slipped into the aquarium and moved forward or 
backward as desired. The water in the aquarium 
must be perfectly clean and clear and the glass must 
be free from weeds, slime, or dirt. The pictures 
should be taken out of doors if possible, but a well- 
lighted room will answer, especially if it has a sky- 
light. Do not place the aquarium in bright sun- 
light, but select a spot where there is an abundance 
of diffused light. Place some stationary object in 
the aquarium and set up the camera. Focus the 
camera upon the nearest glass of the aquarium and 
move the object within slowly toward the rear. 
Adjust the glass partition until all portions of the 
interior of the aquarium from front to rear are in 
sharp focus and you are then ready to proceed with 
the live subjects. When first placed in the aqua- 



208 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

rium, frogs, turtles, and fish are usually quite ex- 
cited and swim or move about very rapidly. Do 
not attempt to photograph them until they have 
quieted down and have become accustomed to their 
confinement. Then approach carefully, slip a plate 
into the camera, wait until the creatures in the 
aquarium are at rest or in natural attitudes and 
take the picture. Sometimes a snap-shot will be 
necessary, for the creatures may keep constantly 
in motion, but very often the subject will remain 
immovable for minutes at a time and time-ex- 
posures may be made. Do not try to photograph 
too many things together; it is often wise to have 
but one creature in the aquarium at one time, for if 
there are several, one may disturb another at the 
critical moment when the exposure is made. Pic- 
tures of frogs and turtles taken in this way often 
represent the animals in attitudes which are very 
strange and remarkable and such photographs give 
us a far better idea of the creatures' habits than it 
is possible to obtain in any other way (Fig. 4). 
Marine animals may be successfully photo- 
graphed in aquariums by the same methods. 
Crabs, lobsters, and even jelly-fish may be thus pic- 
tured in their natural attitudes and while feeding, 




Copyright, Universal Motion Picture Corporation. 

1 — Photographing subjects in water requires painstaking care, 
and when successful is no mean achievement 
{See Chapter VIII) 




At Top Portuguese Man-of-War, Sea Anemone, Photographed 

from Living Specimens ; Below, Odd Positions of Turtle and 

Frog as Disclosed by Photography 

{See Chapter VIII) 



PHOTOGRAPHING WILD THINGS 209 

swimming, or crawling about and for all practical 
purposes the photographs are just as valuable and 
interesting as if taken at the bottom of the sea. 
Even if you collect marine specimens the photo- 
graphs will be interesting and may be exhibited 
with the preserved animals. Photographs of such 
creatures as the Portuguese Man-of-War (Fig. 5), 
of sea anemones (Fig. 6), or of living corals, or 
gorgonias which show the animals fully expanded 
are far more satisfactory and attractive than the 
preserved specimens. 

When taking pictures of any of these forms of 
water life you should place rocks, weeds, shells, 
sand, etc., in the aquarium, for these add greatly 
to the natural appearance of the photographs and 
they also serve to make the captive animals feel 
more at home. 

Of all live creatures insects are perhaps the easi- 
est to photograph and in many ways they are the 
most interesting. 

A great many of them may be photographed in 
the woods or out of doors, but the best pictures are 
those taken indoors where you can arrange the 
light, the surroundings, and the subjects to suit 
yourself. 



210 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

To photograph insects successfully you should 
have a long-draw camera, a rigid support of some 
sort, and a rapid lens. The support may be either 
a stand made for the purpose or a board or plank 
set upon two horses or benches, but the camera 
should be clamped to it firmly and it should be 
placed where there is no jar or vibration. A stand 
of some sort must also be arranged to hold the in- 
sects to be photographed. It is not advisable to 
have this connected with the camera or its support, 
for any motion or jar of the latter may thus dis- 
turb the insects. The stand on which to place the 
creatures may be very simple and the only req- 
uisites are places in which to set leaves, sticks, or 
other objects and a support for a background, such 
as a sheet of cardboard or paper. The insects to 
be photographed are placed upon the plants or other 
objects; the background, of the proper shade to 
bring out the subjects in relief, is placed a few 
inches or a foot behind them, and the camera is 
carefully focussed. The plate being ready and the 
shutter set for a bulb exposure you must then wait 
until the insects are motionless, and press the bulb 
and hold the shutter open for the correct length of 
time. If an insect moves, close the shutter at once. 



PHOTOGRAPHING WILD THINGS 211 

By this method you can often obtain a fully timed 
exposure, while even the shortest bulb exposure will 
give far better results than an instantaneous pic- 
ture. Some species of insects are very restless and 
an instantaneous exposure must be made and in 
such cases it is a good plan to take the pictures 
out of doors on a bright day, but not in direct sun- 
light. Insects as a general thing do not move very 
rapidly — with the exception of those in flight — and 
even butterflies, moths, wasps, and other winged 
insects will remain motionless for a long time when 
at rest (Fig. 7). Caterpillars after feeding are 
usually very sluggish and may be taken by time 
exposures without any difficulty (Fig. 8). In the 
case of active, flying insects, ants, spiders, and some 
other things, they should be placed in a glass cage 
or in a box with glass sides and photographed while 
thus enclosed. Very interesting subjects are but- 
terflies and moths emerging from their pupae and a 
series of pictures showing the larva, the pupa, the 
adult insect emerging from the chrysalis, and the 
same insect with wings fully expanded makes a 
very instructive and valuable addition to any col- 
lection. Photographs are especially valuable in 
showing caterpillars. Many of our insect larvae 



212 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

possess forms, colors, or habits which serve to pro- 
tect them from their enemies and in some species 
this "mimicry," as it is called, is truly marvelous. 
The caterpillars of many moths so closely resemble 
little twigs that they are scarcely distinguishable 
(Fig- 24, Chapter V), while other species imitate 
spots on leaves, knots on wood, pieces of bark, and 
other natural objects. Some of the adult insects 
have protective colors or forms also, and moths 
imitate bark and lichens (Fig. 9) ; butterflies mimic 
dead leaves, etc. Still more wonderful is the form 
of mimicry by which harmless, inoffensive insects 
counterfeit dangerous or offensive species in order 
to escape attacks of birds and other enemies. 
Among the beetles there are species which imitate 
black and yellow hornets (Fig. 10), certain species 
of flies so closely resemble bees that the average 
man cannot distinguish them (Fig. 11), and many 
similar examples may be found among the common- 
est insects. Photographs which exhibit such pro- 
tective forms or habits should always be obtained 
when possible, for they illustrate the wonders of 
insect-life in a most vivid and instructive manner 
and are of real scientific value. 

To the boy interested in plants, woods, or any 




IO 



II 



Photograph of Various Insects 
(See Chapter VIII) 




12 — Photographs Aid in Indentifying Trees 
(See Chapter VIII) 



PHOTOGRAPHING WILD THINGS 213 

department of botany, the camera will prove an in- 
valuable aid. In connection with the wood collec- 
tion, or by itself a series of photographs of trees 
is very interesting and useful. The form and 
method of branching of each species of tree is 
usually quite typical and is an important factor in 
identifying the various trees. By securing good 
photographs of typical trees, taken in winter and 
summer, and supplementing these with close views 
of the bark, photographs of the leaves, flowers, 
and seeds, a most valuable and instructive collec- 
tion may be formed. By studying such photo- 
graphs you will soon learn to recognize the vari- 
ous trees by any one or by several of their char- 
acteristics. It may be quite difficult for you to dis- 
tinguish the several pines and spruces, but if you 
have good photographs showing their leaves and 
cones you will find that they are all very distinct 
and by comparison with the pictures you will have 
no difficulty in recognizing all the evergreen trees 
(Fig. 12). Collections of pressed and dried plants 
and flowers are pretty, interesting and useful; but 
they are fragile and unsatisfactory at the best and 
a collection of photographs will serve every purpose 
and will be far more durable and will represent the 



214 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

appearance of the plants to far better advantage 
than the dried specimens. Many plants may be 
photographed in the woods and fields, but until you 
attempt this you will not realize how many drafts 
and breezes are constantly moving the delicate 
leaves and flowers. Even on the calmest days and 
in the most sheltered spots you will find it difficult 
to secure a time exposure of growing plants, but 
by using patience, and if necessary placing a fold- 
ing screen about the plants, very beautiful pictures 
may be obtained. If a plain, tinted or black card is 
placed behind the plant for a background the pic- 
tures will be far more satisfactory, for a confused 
mass of twigs, foliage, grass, or ground makes a 
very poor background, even if it is softened by be- 
ing out of focus. Be sure to place the card far 
enough away so that no shadow is cast and do not 
attempt to take pictures where the brilliant sun 
strikes the plants in spots and blotches. In the 
open, plants may be photographed in bright sun- 
light — although a diffused light, such as is found 
on a slightly cloudy day gives better results — but 
in the woods or among foliage the direct sunlight 
should be screened from the plant by some object 
held above it while the exposure is being made. 



PHOTOGRAPHING WILD THINGS 215 

Many wild plants and flowers are so delicate or 
wilt so soon that in order to secure good pictures 
the photographs must be made of the living, grow- 
ing plant. There are many other species which 
may be photographed to far better advantage in 
the house or studio, however. These may be placed 
in bottles, vases, or on stands and photographed 
with the camera placed horizontally, but far better 
results may be obtained by placing the camera ver- 
tically. For this purpose you must make a strong, 
rigid stand, with an upright to support the camera, 
and the flowers or other objects are then placed 
upon a horizontal stand or support below the 
camera. To get the best effects the objects to be 
photographed should be arranged upon a sheet of 
clean glass which is supported at some distance 
above a background of paper or cardboard of the 
desired shade. This obviates any shadows and 
brings the flowers into strong relief and by placing 
the stand between two windows very beautiful, even 
lighting may be secured. 

When photographing flowers or plants use 
orthochromatic plates if it is possible. A red, yel- 
low, or orange flower photographed with an ordi- 
nary plate will appear nearly black, while the deli- 



216 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

cate veins and details of a pale-blue or purple flower 
may be entirely lost in the glaring white spot which 
represents it on the finished print. 

Orthochromatic plates give far better effects of 
true color-values and as the beauty of flower photo- 
graphs depends upon the accuracy with which each 
and every detail and marking is shown you should 
use every effort to reproduce these in your pictures. 

When making the prints from negatives of flow- 
ers, insects, birds, animals, or any other nature pho- 
tographs use black and white- matt-surface paper. 
Developing papers, such as Velox, Cyko, etc., are 
far better than the gold or silver printing-out 
papers, but even these are far less to be advised than 
the real platinum papers. Properly made platinum 
prints are absolutely permanent and exposure to 
sunlight or to atmosphere does not affect them, but 
any printing-out paper is liable to fade and the 
developing papers often become discolored with age. 
Moreover, a platinum print may be colored with 
water colors and will be as delicate and dainty as an 
original water-color drawing. The developing or 
printing-out papers can be colored, but the results 
are seldom very satisfactory and the work is diffi- 
cult. 



PHOTOGRAPHING WILD THINGS 217 

No matter what class of natural objects you pho- 
tograph use care in numbering and labeling the 
negatives and prints. You may be able to remem- 
ber all about them for a time, but you cannot de- 
pend upon your memory as the pictures accumulate, 
and the only sure method is to number and cata- 
logue each plate and label the prints. A collection 
of nature photographs without labels or data may 
be very pretty and interesting but from a collector's 
point of view, or scientifically, it will be practically 
worthless. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE USE AND VALUE OF THE MICROSCOPE 

ANY boy will find a good miscroscope a very in- 
teresting instrument and to the boy collector 
a microscope will be of the greatest help and value, 
aside from the many interesting things you can 
learn by its use. 

By using a microscope many living creatures may 
be seen and studied which are nearly or quite in- 
visible to the naked eye, while many larger things 
will reveal new wonders and undreamed of beau- 
ties. Very good instruments can be purchased for 
a few dollars and for ordinary purposes a cheap 
microscope will answer just as well as a very expen- 
sive affair. To prepare sections, mount slides, and 
make dissections and preparations for serious micro- 
scopic study is an art in itself, and is not within the 
scope of a book on collecting. A great deal may be 
learned, a vast number of interesting things dis- 
covered, and an added attraction will be given to 

your specimens by simple microscopy and without 

218 



THE USE OF THE MICROSCOPE 219 

the trouble or bother of the more difficult and in- 
tricate details of sections, slides, etc. Some speci- 
mens must be mounted on slides in order to study 
them, but a great many can be watched while they 
are alive and many more may be placed temporarily 
on dry, unprepared slides and the slides may then 
be used over and over again. 

Aside from the microscope itself you will require 
a few glass slides, some slide-cover-glasses, some 
Canada balsam and glycerin jelly, some asphaltum 
varnish, some watch-crystals and some fine for- 
ceps, a needle in a handle and some small camel's 
hair brushes. The same forceps and needle-point 
which are described for the insect collector may be 
used in microscopic work and the other things may 
all be purchased very cheaply. The watch-crystals 
are used when living creatures are to be examined, 
while the slides may be used plain for dry objects, 
and other specimens may be mounted under the 
cover-glasses for preservation and as permanent 
slides. 

In order to mount an object it should first be pre- 
served with alcohol or formaldehyde solution. A 
drop of balsam should then be placed on a clean 
slide, the slide should be warmed until the balsam 



220 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

spreads and is softened, the object to be mounted 
should be placed in the balsam, and a cover-glass 
pressed gently, but firmly, over all. When the 
balsam hardens a narrow ring of asphalt should be 
painted around the edge of the cover-glass and the 
slide will be finished. Sometimes little bubbles of 
air will form in the balsam, but this may be 
remedied by heating the slide slightly before 
cementing with the asphalt and after a little prac- 
tise you will learn how to press out the air by the 
cover-glass, as well as just how much balsam to use 
and how much to heat it. 

Glycerin jelly is used for the same purpose as the 
balsam and for some specimens one is preferable 
and for other objects the other. Many objects may 
be mounted dry, by painting a ring on the slide, ar- 
ranging the specimens within it, placing a cover- 
glass over it and painting asphalt around the 
edges. This method is excellent for such specimens 
as the scales from insects' wings, minute shells, 
sand, pollen from flowers, and similar things. 

To use the microscope, place the instrument in a 
good light, place the slide with the specimens on 
the stage or carrier, turn the reflecting mirror un- 
til it casts a clear, bright light through the slide 



THE USE OF THE MICROSCOPE 221 

and then adjust the barrel of the microscope con- 
taining the lenses up or down until the objects on 
the slide are clear and sharp. In the case of opaque 
or solid objects the light should be thrown upon 
them from above and for this purpose a bull's-eye 
or condensing-lens on a stand should be used, or a 
small pocket-mirror may be arranged upon a sup- 
port to accomplish the same result. 

All but the very cheapest microscopes are pro- 
vided with several objectives or lenses of various 
powers and the lens to be used depends a very great 
deal upon the specimens being examined. It is just 
as much a mistake to use a lens which is too power- 
ful as to use one which is not powerful enough. 
The high-power lenses have but little depth of 
focus — except those of the most expensive grades 
— and hence the entire specimen cannot be brought 
into focus at one time if it has any appreciable 
thickness. On the other hand a low-power lens 
should not be used on very minute objects; a speci- 
men which appears as a mere meaningless dot 
through a low-power lens may be marvelously beau- 
tiful and very distinct through a lens of higher 
power. Bear in mind that the lower the power of 
the lens the farther it should be from the slide and 



222 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

vice versa. Never screw the lens down against the 
slide — it will ruin the slide and may injure the lens 
— and unless you use a lens of extreme high power 
there should always be quite a little space between 
the object and the lens. One advantage of the 
microscope is that you do not have to go far or 
search long for specimens to study. A drop of 
common pond or lake water in a watch-glass, a 
pinch of dust from the room, a few grains of sand 
from the seashore, a little down from a butterfly's 
wings, some powdered chalk, a tiny piece clipped 
from a feather, or the wing, leg or antennae of a 
fly or other insect, are all good subjects for the be- 
ginner with a miscroscope. 

You will be surprised to find the apparently clear 
drop of water filled with strange and beautiful 
forms of living creatures moving rapidly to and fro, 
the specks of dust will resolve themselves into a 
myriad different objects, the grains of sand will 
appear as magnificent crystals and flashing gems, 
the down from the butterfly's wing will prove to be 
gorgeously colored and beautifully formed scales 
and feathers (Fig. i) ; instead of the powdery chalk 
you will see a host of delicate, fairy-like shells, and 
the portions of the insects' anatomy will appear like 



THE USE OF THE MICROSCOPE 223 

the remains of some prehistoric monster. A boy 
may spend hours or days studying a common fly or 
mosquito through a microscope and until he has 
done this he can obtain but a very poor idea of the 
details of the structure of insects. The antennae, 
jaws, and other portions of a fly, or any other in- 
sect, are extremely complicated, but are perfectly 



P<?f In 





Fig. 1. Scales of a butterfly's wing as seen through the microscope 



designed for the duties they perform. Such a 
specimen as a fly's palpi, or jaw, viewed through the 
miscroscope will do more to increase your apprecia- 
tion of nature's marvels than hundreds of prepared 
insects in a collection, or pages of printed descrip- 
tions in books (Fig. 2). 

Microscopes are very useful for commercial and 
industrial purposes and you can obtain a lot of fun 
and will find a great deal of interest in trying to 



224 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

analyze various common substances with your 
microscope. Flour, starch, spices, fabrics, and in 
fact any other substance or material, when exam- 
ined through these useful instruments, will usually 
be found full of foreign substances, adulterants, 
and strange odds and ends. As an example of the 
value of the microscope in determining the composi- 
tion of any certain material, glance at Fig. 3. This 
looks like a pile of good-sized sea-shells, such as 
you might find upon a wave-washed shore. In 
reality it is a pinch of sand from the shore of 
Bermuda and proves beyond question that the so- 
called "coral sand" of those islands is really com- 
posed almost entirely of minute shells, although to 
the naked eye it may seem as fine as flour and the 
grains may have no definite form. After you have 
studied various objects through the microscope you 
will no doubt wish that you could reproduce what 
you see for the benefit of others and as records of 
the wonders which you have discovered. This may 
be readily accomplished, for you may draw or pho- 
tograph through the microscope and thus produce 
perfect facsimiles of the objects as you view them 
through the lens. 

In order to draw through the microscope you will 



THE USE OF THE MICROSCOPE 225 

require a camera lucida which is an inexpensive 
affair that fits over the eye-piece of the microscope. 
The camera lucida consists of a triangular piece of 
glass, or prism — or a piece of tinted glass — set at 
an angle so that the image of the specimen under the 
lens is visible by its reflection on the prism. The 
microscope, with the camera attached, is placed 
with the barrel in a horizontal position and a sheet 
of paper is placed directly under the camera lucida. 
By looking into the attachment with one eye you 
will see the enlarged specimen under the lens ap- 
parently outlined upon the paper. By adjusting 
the lenses out or in and by raising or lowering 
the paper the outlines will become sharp and dis- 
tinct. If you now take a pencil you will be able to 
follow, or trace over, the image projected upon the 
paper and will thus be able to make a perfect draw- 
ing of the object under the lens. You will no doubt 
have a little trouble at first, for you must learn to 
keep your eyes in the same position and must not 
attempt to see either the image or the tip of your 
pencil too plainly. With a little practise, however, 
you will find that it is a very easy matter to make 
drawings in this way. Do not attempt to shade, 
color, or ink the drawing under the camera — just 



226 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

make the outline and draw in the various details 
and then finish the drawing by free hand while ex- 
amining the object through the microscope in the 
ordinary manner as you proceed. It is a good plan 
to commence drawing fairly large, simple things 
through a lens of low power and as you become ac- 
customed to the work and acquire skill you can at- 
tempt more intricate and complicated specimens un- 
der higher powers. It is by this method that the 
beautiful drawings of microscopic objects are made 
for scientific works. The accompanying illustra- 
tion shows three examples of camera-lucida draw- 
ings ; Fig. 4 represents the antennae of a number of 
common insects, Fig. 5 the feet of flies, water bee- 
tles, etc., and Fig. 6 a section of a horse's skin show- 
ing the roots of hairs, sweatducts, and similar de- 
f tails. 

To make photographs through a microscope, or 
as they are more properly called, "photomicro- 
graphs," is more difficult than to make camera-lu- 
cida drawings, but the results are even more satis- 
factory. 

There are several methods of making photomicro- 
graphs, but for most purposes the simplest and 
easiest method will be found the most satisfactory, 



THE USE OF THE MICROSCOPE 227 






Fig. 5 




Fig. 4 




Fig. 6 



Fig. 4. Antennae of insects drawn through the camera lucida. Fig. 
5. Feet of flies and beetles drawn through the camera lucida. 
Fig. 6. Section of a horse's skin drawn through the camera 
lucida 



228 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

especially for beginners and with low-power lenses. 
This consists of fitting an ordinary long-draw cam- 
era with a tube or sleeve of light-proof black cloth 
at the front end. The eye piece is removed from 
the microscope, the dark cloth is connected with 
the barrel of the microscope, the latter is focussed 
until the image of the specimen on the slide stands 
out sharp and distinct upon the ground-glass of the 
camera and the exposure is made. This sounds 
very simple, but there are a number of details 
which must be attended to which make the work 
somewhat difficult. In the first place ordinary day- 
light will seldom be strong enough to use in making 
these greatly magnified photographs, and artificial 
light must be used. An incandescent lamp, a 
Rochester oil lamp, or a Welsbach mantel gaslight 
will usually serve this purpose and the results will 
be better if a powerful reflector or a mirror is placed 
behind the light. If you have a good stereopticon 
or magic lantern this can be used to throw a power- 
ful light upon the microscope slide and the electric 
or acetylene headlight of an automobile also makes 
a splendid light for this purpose. Some of my 
most successful photographs through a microscope 
were taken by means of an acetylene bicycle lamp 



THE USE OF THE MICROSCOPE 229 

and as such lamps give a very white, steady, strong 
light they are excellent for this use. Of course 
when using the microscope with a camera in this 
way the microscope barrel must be placed horizon- 
tally and you may find difficulty in getting the ob- 
ject focussed sharply upon the ground glass. Try 
focussing first with the microscope barrel alone and 
then move the camera out and in until the image 
shows clearly. Even then you cannot be sure that 
it is in really sharp focus, for the microscope lens 
has little depth of focus and the variation of a 
small fraction of an inch may result in a blurred 
picture. To insure very clear focussing the ground 
glass should be rubbed over with vaseline, or some 
sort of grease, to make it more transparent. This 
need not cover the entire glass for a small spot is 
sufficient on which to focus the object. Many op- 
erators use a piece of clear glass and use a hand- 
lens for examining the image thrown on the glass 
and where high-power lenses are used on the mi- 
croscope this is an excellent plan. Finally there is 
the question of exposure. This varies so greatly 
with different specimens, different lenses, and dif- 
ferent lights that it is impossible to give any good 
idea of what exposure should be allowed, but 



230 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

usually fifteen minutes to half an hour is none too 
long. The best way is to try one plate, with say 
ten minutes' exposure. If this shows under-ex- 
posure or over-exposure you can then judge of the 
proper amount to increase or decrease the time 
given. It is wiser to over-expose than to under- 
expose, however, for sharp, dense negatives are 
desirable and over-exposed plates treated with a 
slow, intense developer — such as hydrochinon and 
bromide of potassium — give better results than un- 
der-exposed plates with a developer which gives 
thin negatives with lots of detail. Different makes 
of microscopes have different arrangements of their 
lenses and with some instruments it is impossible 
to secure good photographs as described. In such 
cases try leaving the regular eye-piece in the micro- 
scope and attach the camera as directed. With 
some instruments the lens may be removed from 
the camera and the microscope lens may be used by 
itself, but this is frequently impractical, although 
very beautiful pictures may be taken in this way. 
The best way to determine the proper method to 
follow in order to secure satisfactory results is 
to try various combinations of camera and micro- 
scope and persevere until you are successful. In 




IO 



Photographs Made Through a Microscope 
(See Chapter IX) 





i-T^ 




O ^ 

■— -" ■*■* 

a, -^ 

nJ « 

J-* r 5 

o 
■*-> 
o 



THE USE OF THE MICROSCOPE 231 

the illustration several examples of photomicro- 
graphs are shown and you can see by these what 
excellent and very interesting results may be ob- 
tained. Fig. 7 is a photograph of a section of the 
lining of a cat's stomach, Fig. 8 shows crystals of 
Cinchonidine, which is the active principle in Peru- 
vian bark, Fig. 9 is the tongue of a small marine 
shell, and Fig. 10 is the head of a tiny insect which 
is about the size of the common plant-lice and is 
known as an "Aphis Lion" from the fact that it 
devours the troublesome aphids. 

Although true photomicrographs are so interest- 
ing there are a great many small things which can 
be photographed in greatly magnified form without 
the microscope. If you have a long bellows camera 
you can photograph such objects and enlarge them 
several times and by attaching a box or tube to the 
rear of the camera to further lengthen the draw, 
or by placing one camera behind another (with the 
ground glass of the first and the lens of the second 
removed) you can make still more highly magnified 
pictures. But to make photographs which ap- 
proach photomicrographs in the amount of their 
enlargement an exceedingly long draw is necessary 
which makes the camera very bulky and clumsy. 



232 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

This may readily be overcome by using a very short- 
focus lens on a long-bellows camera and if the lens 
is of good quality photographs may be made in a 
camera of three foot draw which are sharp and 
clear and are almost as greatly magnified as those 
taken through a microscope with low-power lenses. 
The photographs of a dandelion seed-head ( Fig. 1 1 ) 
and of the Aphis Lion (Fig. 12) were taken in this 
way. After you have photographed a few speci- 
mens by these methods and see the beautiful and 
surprising results you obtain you will have an in- 
creased interest in collecting and will find a new 
world opened to you by the microscope and camera. 



PART III 

COLLECTIONS OF MAN-MADE 
OBJECTS 



CHAPTER X 

INDIAN RELICS 

IjiEW objects made by man have a greater inter- 
-*■ est and fascination for boys than Indian rel- 
ics and few are more worthy of being collected. 
Indian relics of one sort or another are found in 
nearly every part of America and collections of 
aboriginal weapons, utensils, ornaments, and handi- 
work are of great value and serve to teach us much 
about the life and customs of the early inhabitants 
of our country. 

While great numbers of pure-blooded Indians 
still survive and some may be found in nearly every 
State of the Union, yet many tribes have disap- 
peared entirely and many others are decreasing in 
numbers each year. Moreover, with few excep- 
tions the Indians of to-day are rapidly acquiring 
the life, habits, dress, and arts of the white man, 
and it is only a question of time when Indian handi- 
work will be a thing of the past. 

For these reasons the collection of Indian relics 

235 



236 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

should not be confined to stone arrowheads and 
other ancient or prehistoric objects but should in- 
clude articles of every sort made or used by Indians, 
or Eskimos, and which savor of primitive or savage 
man. 

In a general way all Indian relics may be divided 
into two groups: ancient relics and modern relics. 
In the first class are stone weapons, ancient pottery, 
utensils, tools, ornaments, wampum, and in fact 
any objects which are found in mounds, graves, 
shell heaps, or other situations and which antedate 
the settlement of America by Europeans. In the 
other class are included buckskin articles, beadwork, 
baskets, pottery, weapons, utensils, and in fact any- 
thing made by Indians within comparatively recent 
times, or which is in use by Indians to-day. There 
is no real place to draw the line between ancient and 
modern relics, however, for a great many of our na- 
tive tribes used stone weapons, identical with those 
found in ancient mounds, until quite recently and 
some isolated and primitive tribes still make and 
use various articles which might properly be classed 
as "ancient." Moreover, prehistoric tribes no 
doubt used baskets, leather articles, and similar 
things which may have been identical with those 



INDIAN RELICS 237 

used by their descendants of the present time. In 
some ways these modern relics are even more impor- 
tant than the ancient ones, for the latter will con- 
tinue to exist for ages to come, whereas buckskin 
and beadwork will soon disappear, if not preserved 
and protected in collections. 

Really good buckskin articles and beadwork are 
even now difficult to obtain and each year they are 
becoming scarcer. Of course there are quantities 
of bead-embroidered objects for sale in stores, In- 
dian camps, and other places and while some of this 
is fit for collections a great deal is only made to sell 
to tourists. This class of "Indian" goods is often 
manufactured in shops or factories and is purely 
imitation or counterfeit, but quite a lot is made by 
real Indians. Although far inferior to the goods 
made by the redmen for their own use such objects 
are much better than nothing at all, for they often 
exhibit the tribal or individual designs and patterns 
of the Indians and illustrate the forms and styles 
of articles used by them. 

In the old days, and until they became civilized 
to large extent, the Indians used beautifully soft- 
tanned leather, did their sewing with thongs, roots, 
and sinews and dyed their feathers, porcupine- 



238 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

quills, and ornaments with berries, vegetable-col- 
ors, and ochers. To-day they have learned that 
sheepskin, kid, chamois, and other commercial 
leathers are cheaper than buckskin or elkhide, that 
aniline dyes are brighter and are easier to prepare 
than vegetable dyes, and that cheap cotton thread is 
easier to use than sinews. The beautiful bead- 
work, formed by sewing each bead separately to the 
buckskin, has largely given place to beads strung 
and woven on hand looms and afterwards sewed to 
leather or cloth, and silk embroidery floss often 
serves in place of porcupine quills. 

Oftentimes these up-to-date Indian goods make 
valuable and interesting specimens, for they 
serve to show the influence of the white man 
and his civilization upon the native arts and indus- 
tries. 

Originally the patterns or designs on Indian or- 
namental work really had a meaning and the totem, 
or sign, of each tribe, family, and individual was 
often wrought into moccasins, vests, leggins, head 
dresses, etc. Sometimes the Indians still retain 
such symbols and employ designs with definite 
meanings, even in their cheapest and most tawdry 
work, but in a great many cases they merely use 



INDIAN RELICS 239 

the designs which are brightest and most attractive 
to the white visitors to their camps. 

To a person familiar with Indian life and tradi- 
tions each design, ornament, and decoration tells 
a story, and an Indian or plainsman can tell the 
tribe to which an Indian belongs by the moccasins, 
feathers, or ornaments which he wears. Many 
tribes still make and use various articles which are 
distinctive and are scarcely affected by the white 
man's influence, while others have practically for- 
gotten and discarded everything savoring of sav- 
age life or customs. Still other tribes are in a sort 
of transition period, in which their handiwork is a 
curious combination of the aboriginal and the civil- 
ized and the collector should aim to have specimens 
of all these in order to show the gradual transi- 
tion of the Indians from a savage to a civilized race. 
Don't discard or pass by an Indian or Eskimo ar- 
ticle merely because civilized materials are used in 
making it. Oftentimes the most primitive and 
isolated tribes combine the products of the white 
men with natural objects in a most curious manner. 
South and Central American tribes often string 
shoe-buttons, safety pins, brass clock-wheels, seal- 
ing wax, and pieces of glass side by side with jaguar 



240 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

and monkey teeth, while other tribes make beauti- 
ful arrow-points from old beer bottles ! 

Indians appreciate the utility of civilized things 
and the more uncivilized and primitive they are the 
more they prize objects of metal, cloth, etc., which 
they can obtain from white men. Even in the 
earliest days of the American settlers the Indians 
adopted hatchets and axes as tomahawks in place 
of their stone-headed weapons, and bows and ar- 
rows soon gave way to firearms, but this doesn't 
prevent iron-headed tomahawks or flint-locks or 
other guns from being interesting specimens in the 
collection of Indian relics. A shingling-hatchet, 
with a buckskin-covered, ornamented handle (Fig. 
i ), is just as interesting for the collection as a stone- 
headed "skull cracker" (Fig. 2), and a gun with 
stock scratched and ornamented by the Indian 
owner (Fig. 3) is just as truly an Indian relic as a 
bow and arrows in a buckskin case (Fig. 4). A 
great many of the Indian relics which the collector 
secures will be of value or interest solely as examples 
of savage handiwork and customs, but now and 
then you may obtain articles with true historical 
or romantic value. A plain, horn-handled hunt- 
ing-knife with badly rusted blade may not appear 



INDIAN RELICS 



241 



of great interest, but if the label shows that it was 
found embedded in the breast of an Indian's skele- 
ton it at once becomes a valuable relic. An Indian 
friend once gave me a beaded headband which be- 
longed to Sitting Bull. At first sight this seemed 
a very simple bit of buckskin covered with splendid 




Fig. 2 



Fig. 1. Tomahawk made from old hatchet. Fig. 2. Stone-headed 

skull cracker 



beadwork, but when worn by my wife in the pres- 
ence of Sioux Indians it invariably aroused their 
interest and curiosity and proved an easy and cer- 
tain means of winning their confidence and friend- 
ship as soon as they learned the history of this 
relic of their great Medicine Chief. 



242 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

Baskets are also valuable specimens for the col- 
lection, for each tribe has baskets of a distinct style 
and pattern and while many tribes now weave 
baskets according to white men's ideas and for de- 
partment and ten-cent stores, yet they have not f or- 




Fig. 4 

Fig. 3. A gun stock ornamented by Indians. Fig. 4. Bow and 
arrows in buckskin quiver 

gotten how to make their own individual forms and 
patterns. There is a wide difference between the 
sweet-grass baskets of the eastern Indians and the 
wonderfully beautiful affairs of the Zuni and Cali- 
fornian tribes, and every collector should strive 
to secure a typical series of Indian baskets for his 



INDIAN RELICS 243 

collection. Some few tribes are noted for their 
skill in weaving, others for their pottery, others 
for their metal work, others for beadwork, and still 
others for their handiwork in horsehair, grass, etc. 
A small Navajo blanket, Pueblo silver and rough 
turquoise ornaments, Sioux and Ojibway embroid- 
ery, and similar specimens of the arts and crafts 
typical of each tribe should be represented in the 
collection. If you live near a reservation, camp, 
or tribe of Indians you can usually obtain a great 
many specimens and duplicates may be traded or 
exchanged with other collectors for examples of 
the handiwork of other tribes. If you travel about 
you can obtain specimens from various localities 
and tribes and if you do not either travel or live 
within reach of an Indian settlement you will have 
to depend upon purchasing specimens or upon ex- 
changing other specimens for them. Ancient In- 
dian relics are found in nearly every part of the 
country and these may often be traded for modern 
objects to advantage. 

In some ways the ancient relics are even more in- 
teresting than the modern objects, for they tell the 
story of the Indian as he was before Europeans 
landed upon this continent and forced the redman 



244 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

from his native woods and plains. In some parts 
of the United States stone implements are very- 
abundant and thousands of arrow- and spear-heads 
may be easily secured, whereas in other places they 
are so rare that a collector feels well rewarded 
when he secures a single specimen. In quality, 
form, and material these ancient relics vary as 
greatly as in their abundance. In one district they 
may be crudely made of hornstone or jasper, in 
another they may be of pure white quartz and very 
beautifully formed, in still another place they may 
be of volcanic glass or obsidian, while in still another 
locality tiny bird-points of agate may predomi- 
nate. 

As these implements were all chipped by hand 
from the rocks or stones of the neighborhood it is 
seldom that those found in any two places are simi- 
lar and for that matter no two stone implements are 
ever exactly alike. For this reason duplicates may 
be said never to exist, but in reality there are many 
so nearly alike that is not necessary to retain them 
all. Such specimens may be readily exchanged 
with collectors in other parts of the country and in 
this way an excellent collection may be formed. 
The boy in Oregon, with his assortment of agate 



INDIAN RELICS 245 

bird-points will be able to exchange his duplicates 
or superfluous specimens with the boy in the East 
who has only crude, rough relics from the shell 
heaps of the Atlantic coast and the boy in the Mid- 
dle West can obtain obsidian weapons in exchange 
for the stone objects found in the graves of the 
mound builders. 

I have mentioned that the stone implements were 
made locally from the material close at hand and 
while this is quite true, yet one often finds relics 
of forms or materials which proves that they came 
from some far distant part of the country. This is 
due to the fact that even in the earliest times the 
Indians often traveled for long distances on their 
hunts, war trails, or pilgrimages and they also 
traded with other tribes. In some parts of the 
country the natives had no suitable material from 
which to form their tools and weapons and to ob- 
tain this they traded other things which existed 
only in their neighborhood. Thus the red pipe- 
stone of the upper Mississippi Valley was highly 
prized by the Indians and formed a standard me- 
dium of exchange throughout the country. Cer- 
tain shells and other objects, found upon the Atlan- 
tic coast, were valued by the western Indians, 



246 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

while the curious "tusk shells" and abalones of the 
Pacific shores passed from tribe to tribe and were 
used as ornaments by Indians who had never seen 
salt water. It doubtless required years for some 
of these objects to pass from hand to hand until at 
last they were buried with their owner in spots hun- 
dreds or thousands of miles from where they origi- 
nally occurred and the collection of relics from one 
locality will often throw a great light upon the in- 
tercourse that existed between widely separated 
tribes. 

Another important part of the collection is pot- 
tery. Nearly every Indian tribe made pottery of 
some sort and the quality of their pottery is a pretty 
good indication of their advancement along the path 
toward civilization and peaceful lives. Nomadic, 
war-like tribes were seldom long enough in one 
spot to bother with the art of making pottery, while 
those tribes which lived in permanent camps or 
settlements found pottery useful and convenient 
and advanced rapidly in the art of molding and 
baking clay into utensils and dishes. In the North 
and East pottery is comparatively rare and it is sel- 
dom that a perfect piece is found, whereas in the 
Middle West it is quite common and in the South- 



INDIAN RELICS 247 

west, in Mexico, and in Central America it occurs 
in vast quantities. 

Never discard a bit of broken pottery — even 
fragments are worth saving — and quite frequently 
a very fine specimen may be obtained by carefully 
matching a number of pieces and restoring the 
original vessel. In some parts of the country there 
are carved rocks, ancient ruins, mounds, etc., which 
are of vast interest, but it is seldom that such things 
can be included in a collection. Photographs often 
show such objects very well and whenever a carv- 
ing, a mound, or a ruin is discovered you should 
take a good picture of it and include it in your col- 
lection (Fig. 5). 

If the figures cut in the rocks or cliffs are very 
lightly carved or show little contrast with the sur- 
roundings they may be brought into relief by rub- 
bing light-colored clay over the surface, but after 
the pictures are taken this should be carefully re- 
moved. In some cases a mold of plaster or clay 
may be made and the carvings may then be repro- 
duced in plaster for the collection. When a grave 
or mound is found it should be photographed and 
carefully measured and a diagram or map should 
be made. If the grave or mound is opened you 



248 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

should use great care to note exactly how it is 
formed and the relative positions of everything it 
contains should be described in a note-book, as these 
are of great importance and value. When an In- 
dian mound or grave is opened it will almost always 
yield a fine assortment of specimens, for the natives 
usually buried the bodies of their fellows with all 
their personal belongings. In former times vast 
numbers of these graves and mounds were opened 
for the objects they contained and with no regard 
for the importance they might have. Much which 
might have been discovered was thus lost forever 
and nowadays most of the large and important 
mounds are under state or federal protection. In 
addition to these there are numbers of individual 
graves, as well as many small mounds, which have 
never been discovered or opened and which any one 
may explore. If these are excavated properly and 
with due attention to their form, arrangements, 
measurements, etc., you will be aiding instead of 
hindering archeological research and your notes 
may be of great interest and of immense educa- 
tional value ; and in addition the specimens obtained 
will be of much greater interest than if they were 
dug out without noting the surroundings. Along 




5 — Indian Carvings on Rock 

{See Chapter X) 




o 
U 



U3 

> 



< 



rv! 

I — 



X 



•a. 



5 to 



a 
rf 



be 

o 



o 
o 

U 



INDIAN RELICS 249 

the seacoasts, where Indians once lived, you may 
often find great piles of sea shells. Sometimes 
these cover large areas and form miniature hills, 
while in other localities they are mixed with earth, 
overgrown with grass and brush, and show as lay- 
ers in the banks exposed by washouts, storms, or 
cuttings. 

These are known as "shell-heaps" or "kitchen- 
middens" and mark the spots where Indians once 
camped and for long periods lived upon the shell- 
fish of the vicinity. As these shell-heaps were be- 
ing formed the Indians lost or mislaid numerous 
implements, weapons, etc., just as the modern 
kitchen and table utensils are often thrown into 
the garbage pail. While it is practically impos- 
sible to search these old refuse piles thoroughly, yet 
after heavy rains or storms you may frequently 
secure good specimens of arrow-heads, knives, axes 
and hammers, bits of pottery, etc., among the ma- 
terial washed from the banks or heaps and many 
hours or even days may be profitably spent search- 
ing through kitchen-middens. In some localities, 
where the seaside banks have been storm beaten for 
long periods, you will find arrow-heads and other 
stone implements upon the beaches among the peb- 



250 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

bles. Usually such specimens are badly wave-worn 
and are of little value for collections, but I know 
of one spot where a person can always pick up a 
few excellent specimens after every storm. In this 
case, however, the relics do not come from shell- 
heaps, but from the odds and ends thrown out by 
some arrow-maker who camped there in ancient 
times. This is proved by the fact that a great many 
of the implements are only half finished. The 
maker, having evidently found they were not chip- 
ping true and even, no doubt discarded these partly 
finished objects, but for the collector they are very 
valuable for they illustrate the various stages in the 
process of the manufacture of stone implements. 
Among the other objects found in this spot are 
countless chips and flakes of stone, while a near-by 
vein of quartz shows the spot from which the primi- 
tive artisan obtained his material. If you find such 
a place as I have described be sure to keep speci- 
mens of the chips, for these, displayed with the 
partly finished and completed implements, make an 
interesting exhibit. Another arrow-maker's camp- 
site which I once found was on a tiny dry rise or 
"island" in the middle of a vast salt marsh. The 
little spot of dry ground was not over a dozen 



INDIAN RELICS 251 

yards in diameter and was covered with a tangle 
of weeds and a few stunted trees. A few chips of 
white quartz and some bleached and decayed clam 
shells attracted my attention and in a few hours' 
time I secured nearly one hundred arrow and spear 
heads, several of which were absolutely perfect. 
In other places freshly plowed fields often reveal 
many Indian relics, especially if they happen to be 
spots where an Indian battle was once fought, or 
where Indians were once buried, and some of the 
finest specimens I have ever found were discovered 
lying exposed upon the surface of the earth where 
the sod had been turned up by the plow. Some- 
times the story of a battle between the Indians and 
Europeans will be revealed by the farmer's plow and 
harrow and with the stone weapons of the savages 
will be found the remnants of old guns and pistols, 
sword-hilts, bullets and buttons which have lain 
hidden and forgotten for several hundred years. 
Many of the Indian camps were beside rivers, 
ponds, lakes, and brooks and at times you may find 
pottery, stone implements, mortar-pestles, and other 
objects among the stones in the beds of streams. 
In fact, Indian relics are liable to be found in al- 
most any situation and they often bob up in the 



252 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

most curious and unlikely spots. I have found 
them in the gravel and sand dug from city streets 
by men laying a sewer-line, I have picked them up 
on open roads and paths, and the most beautiful 
white-quartz arrow head I ever obtained was lying 
upon a railway tie between the rails ! 

In arranging and classifying your collection of 
Indian relics you should use just as much care as 
for any other specimen and should arrange the 
objects by some sort of definite system. This 
may be by tribes, by localities, or by the class of 
relics, but the best method is to combine these by 
arranging the ancient things according to States 
and the modern relics by tribes and at the same time 
keeping all the articles of a similar nature together. 

One great advantage of the Indian relic collec- 
tion is that very little care or preparation of the 
specimens is required. Stone implements are not 
injured by exposure to light, dust, or air; an ob- 
ject which will endure the elements for centuries 
is not easily injured or broken. Pottery, however, 
is often very frail and should be carefully pro- 
tected and all objects made of leather, feathers, 
hair, or other animal matter, as well as baskets, 
blankets, etc., should be placed in moth-proof cases 



INDIAN RELICS 



253 



with some substance, such as naphthalene or cam- 
phor, to prevent the ravages of insects. Small 
stone relics, such as arrow and spear heads, may be 
conveniently kept upon cards to which the speci- 
mens should be attached by means of fine wires 




Fig. 6. Arrow heads should be mounted on cards by means of fine 

wires. 



passed through holes in the mount, as shown in 
Fig. 6. Large stone implements may be placed in 
trays or drawers or laid upon shelves, but pottery, 
clay utensils, beads, wampum, and other delicate 
objects should be placed in boxes with glass covers 



254 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

and if very fragile they should be surrounded by 
cotton. Each object should be numbered and cata- 
logued, the number being painted or written upon 
the specimen itself or upon a small label glued to 
the article, and in addition a regular label should 
be provided for every relic. You may at times find 
it difficult to identify or classify your specimens. 
Arrow, spear, and hatchet heads, mortar-pestles, 
mortars, axes, hammers, beads, and many other ob- 
jects are unmistakable, but there are many other 
relics which are of such doubtful character or of 
such unusual forms that you cannot even guess 
their use. Even experienced experts in relics of 
the Indians are frequently at a loss to classify such 
objects and a great many of them have been named 
wholly on supposition. No doubt the aborigines 
knew perfectly well what each article was intended 
for, but modern man finds it mighty hard to tell 
with certainty whether a rough, sharp-edged bit of 
stone was used for a knife or a chisel, or whether 
a rudely formed, rounded rock was designed for a 
hammer or a war-club. Many stone implements 
are perforated and were no doubt hung on strings 
or thongs, but whether these were worn as amulets, 
charms, or ornaments, or were merely hung upon 



INDIAN RELICS 255 

a string so they would be handy and would not be- 
come mislaid, is often purely a matter of personal 
judgment and opinion upon the part of the arche- 
ologists. Some relics are obviously ornaments, 
for they are found with beads and resting upon the 
breasts of skeletons, but others are found loose 
among many other relics. Sometimes, too, it is 
hard to distinguish between real relics and rough, 
worn, or broken stones which have never been used 
by man. The evolution from the rounded cobble 
to the beautifully finished maul was gradual, as was 
the progress from a chip of flint or quartz to the 
finest spear and arrow heads. The earliest savages 
merely selected the bits of rock that they picked up 
here and there and used these for their tools and 
weapons. In time these prehistoric men discovered 
that certain forms of rocks were better adapted to 
specific uses than were others and gradually they 
learned to improve upon the natural stones by 
breaking or chipping them into the shapes they de- 
sired. Of course their first attempts were very 
crude and hence there must have been every grade 
of implement and weapon and if you are doubtful 
whether a certain rock is a real relic or not, keep it 
anyway. As a rule relics, even if they were origi- 



256 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

nally natural rocks, will show signs of wear or of 
chipping or hammering and it is far wiser to in- 
clude a natural stone that resembles a relic than to 
throw away a true relic merely because it appears 
too crude or clumsy to have been formed by man. 
There are many books on Indian relics and in 
nearly every museum there are extensive collections 
and by comparing your specimens with the descrip- 
tions and figures or with the other specimens, you 
can usually identify them. When these methods 
fail, send a photograph, sketch and description to 
some archeologist and enclose stamps for a reply. 
Such experts can usually identify the specimens and 
will be glad to help you and if the specimen is 
unique, rare, or unusual you may be able to ex- 
change it for a number of other specimens of far 
greater interest and value to yourself. 



CHAPTER XI 

WAR, HISTORICAL, AND OTHER RELICS 

THE stone relics of the ancient Indians, and 
the more modern articles of buckskin and 
feathers, bring to one's mind the exciting days 
when red and white men battled and warred over 
the new world. Now and then an ancient firearm, 
a corroded button, or some similar relic is found 
beside the crude weapons of the savages and it is 
quite fitting and appropriate for boys to collect rel- 
ics of our ancestors, especially those which are as- 
sociated with the Indian wars and the conquest of 
America. Such things are becoming scarcer each 
year, for museums, collectors, and dealers have 
searched far and wide for them and only once in a 
great while can the amateur obtain good specimens 
at first hand. But more than half the fun of col- 
lecting consists of hunting for specimens and in old 
farmhouses, garrets, ancient trunks, junk shops, 
pawnbrokers', and antique stores many war relics 
may be obtained for a trifle. If you collect war 

257 



258 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

relics you may confine yourself to one class of rel- 
ics, such as firearms, or you may include everything 
which was used in warfare, such as knapsacks, but- 
tons, flags, bayonets, swords, armor, bullets, uni- 
forms, etc. You may make a specialty of the ob- 
jects associated with one particular war and collect 
Revolutionary War relics or Civil War relics or 
you may collect anything and everything that comes 
along — from bits of rusty armor used by the Span- 
ish conquistadores to the shells of the latest Mau- 
sers used by Germany — but which ever you do you 
must not expect to obtain a good collection unless 
you buy or exchange, for most of these things have 
a definite market value and can neither be picked up 
along the seashore like shells, nor chipped from 
rocks and cliffs like specimens of minerals and fos- 
sils. Of course there are exceptions to this. In 
Mexico, Central America, South America, Florida, 
and some of the West Indies ancient Spanish ar- 
mor, old Toledo blades, helmets, guns and pistols, 
cannon balls, halberds, and cross bows are often 
found in the old forts and castles, in forgotten 
graves, or buried where they fell with the stone 
weapons of Indians beside them. In many of the 
countries mentioned the days of mail-clad knights, 



HISTORICAL RELICS 259 

plate-laden galleons and bloody freebooters are 
closely linked with the present and one may step 
from a palatial steamship or an electric-lighted, 
motor-crowded street into buildings and scenes con- 
temporaneous with Cortez, Pizarro, or even Chris- 
topher Columbus himself. In some places tradi- 
tions furnish a guide to the seeker after ancient war 
relics and by delving among the ruins of cities de- 
stroyed by earthquakes centuries ago the searcher 
may find rusty armor, gold and silver coins, beauti- 
fully wrought weapons, and numerous other ob- 
jects; but in most places the relics, if found at all, 
are discovered by accident and in unexpected places. 
Once, when digging in a sand bank on a tiny Ber- 
mudian island in search of fossil shells, I unearthed 
two human skeletons. Most of the bones had long 
since been washed away and destroyed, but among 
the bleached bones still remaining were fragments 
of cloth and several buttons. These proved to be 
military buttons bearing the insignia of the Royal 
Irish Fusileers and while no one in the vicinity 
knew anything about the history of the remains, re- 
searches among the archives proved that the bones 
must have been those of soldiers who garrisoned 
the island in the days of our Revolutionary War. 



2<5o THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

Again while searching through the refuse of the 
long-deserted kitchen of an abandoned fort in Ber- 
muda I found gun-flints, bullets, buttons, snuff- 
boxes, pipes, and numerous other relics of troops 
who were quartered there in the early days of the 
islands and some of the articles even dated back to 
the seventeenth century. Another time a number 
of rusty cannon-balls were dug up among our 
flower beds when we lived in the West Indies and 
by referring to local histories we found they had 
been thrown from Admiral Rodney's ship when he 
attacked the French back in 1782. This gave the 
relics a new interest and in searching for others my 
son discovered an ancient mortar hidden and over- 
grown with brush on a little eminence behind the 
house. Doubtless the gunners had been killed at 
their post, for the ball was still within the mor- 
tar's muzzle, where it had rusted fast, and the 
charge which the ancient cannon contained had 
never been fired. 

Once, too, I stopped at a country farmhouse and in 
the lumber room where it had been cast aside I found 
an antique blunderbuss which had been handed 
down in the family from generation to generation. 
That it had really been used in the earliest days 



HISTORICAL RELICS 261 

of New England was proven by the fact that the 
tip of a stone arrow head was actually embedded 
in the stock. The owner considered it as of no 
particular value and gladly exchanged it for a cheap 
shotgun. If you collect firearms alone you can 
often pick up splendid specimens in junk shops and 
at pawnbrokers'. A friend of mine, who collected 
pistols, secured a collection of over one hundred dif- 
ferent specimens, some of them of very curious and 
interesting design and many of them very old, by 
making a visit to every pawnshop he could find. 
As these old firearms have no value whatever 
as weapons the pawnbrokers are usually glad 
to dispose of them at very low prices. Auction 
sales of household effects are also good places to 
search for war and historical relics and the boy who 
collects man-made objects must hunt for his speci- 
mens in all such out-of-the-way places, just as the 
boy who collects plants, insects, or similar speci- 
mens hunts through the fields and woods. There 
are numerous dealers in ancient war relics but many 
of these are unreliable and most of the things they 
sell are nothing but fakes and if they have genuine 
relics they charge outrageously for them. Often- 
times you may obtain many interesting war and his- 



262 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

torical relics by exchanging with other boys. Col- 
lectors often start a collection of one thing and then 
decide to abandon that line and start something else 
and in such cases they are glad to exchange what 
they have gathered together for articles to put in 
their new collection. 

Although specimens of weapons and similar 
objects should be kept in good condition and as 
perfect as possible it is a great mistake to attempt 
to restore them. If badly rusted the rust may be 
cleaned off and the specimen oiled, but the metal 
should never be scoured and polished, the wood 
work should never be repainted or revarnished, 
and in every case the specimen should be left in as 
nearly its natural condition as possible. When you 
obtain an old firearm of any sort use just as much 
care in handling it as if you knew it was loaded. 
Guns and pistols have been known to go off and kill 
people after they had been laid away for scores of 
years. Never snap the hammer or pull the trigger 
until after you have made sure there is no charge 
in the weapon and never point a gun or pistol at 
any one, even if you know it is not loaded. Don't 
handle edged or pointed weapons carelessly, espe- 
cially if they are old. They may be dull and rusty 



HISTORICAL RELICS 263 

but bear in mind that a wound made by a dull thing 
is far worse than that made by a sharp object and 
remember that rusty or dirty metal will often cause 
death by blood poisoning. Remember that a relic 
is of little value unless its history is pretty well 
known, or unless it is dated, or its origin and age 
are proven by its style, design, or form and that 
unless actually genuine a relic or antique has no 
value whatever. When you get hold of a relic 
study its history as carefully as you would the life 
and habits of an insect or any other animal and 
make it more valuable and interesting by learning 
all about it. Don't make the mistake of thinking 
because Washington or some other celebrity 
slept in a certain house that a chip of wood, or a 
bit of brick from that house has any historical 
value or is a "relic." You might as well gather a 
handful of dirt from the street over which the per- 
son once rode. A photograph of the house or 
building is far more interesting and valuable. 
Don't confuse real relics and specimens with worth- 
less junk. A piece of the battleship Maine may be 
of interest as an historical relic, but a bottle of 
water from Havana harbor or a box of mud from 
the same place is not a relic merely because the 



264 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

Maine was destroyed there. This is a mistake 
which is all too frequently made by many collectors. 
A relic of any sort, to be worthy of the name, must 
be intimately associated or identified with the per- 
son or event which it represents. Thus the chip 
from the house which sheltered Washington would 
not be a relic and yet a button from our first Presi- 
dent's clothing, his sword, hat, or even a letter writ- 
ten by him would be. And speaking of buttons, 
these make very interesting collections, especially if 
gathered and arranged for some particular purpose. 
A collection of military or naval buttons of the 
world, of buttons of historical interest, or even 
a collection of buttons made by different races or 
countries may be made very educational. 

Even shoes make an interesting collection if prop- 
erly carried out. I don't mean by this that a col- 
lection of ordinary boots, shoes, and slippers is of 
any value — except to wear — but a collection show- 
ing the footwear of various countries and of vari- 
ous times is both interesting and instructive. In 
such a collection there should be the sandal of the 
Oriental and of the Central American Indian, the 
wooden shoes of Europe, the straw slippers and 
paper-soled shoes of China and Japan, the odd 



HISTORICAL RELICS 265 

wooden clogs of Eastern races, the upturned- 
toed boots of the Balkan peoples, the odd boots of 
the Cossacks, the moccasins of the Indians, the fur 
boots of Eskimos, and, in fact, the foot coverings 
of as many races and periods as possible, with a few 
types of the latest patterns in boots, shoes, and slip- 
pers to show the contrast. I recently saw a very 
complete collection of this sort and I confess I was 
actually amazed at the interest it created and the 
educational value it possessed. 

One boy whom I knew collected old door knock- 
ers. Some of these he obtained from deserted 
country houses, others he found in junk shops, 
others he purchased, and others he found in rubbish 
piles. By far the greater number were obtained 
by going through the country with a supply of 
cheap door bells and offering to install these free of 
charge in exchange for the old knockers on the 
farmhouse doors. His collection numbered several 
hundred specimens, many of them of intricate and 
beautiful pattern, and in the entire lot there were 
no two exactly alike. Still another boy friend col- 
lected snuff-boxes and between pawnshops, old 
houses, old people, antique shops, and "rummage 
sales" he managed to secure a collection which he 



266 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

sold for a large sum to a professional collector of 
antiques. 

In this collection were snuff-boxes of every im- 
aginable shape, size, and kind; boxes of horn, tor- 
toise shell, crystal, silver, lacquer, paper, wood, 
agate, and brass; some of them beautiful, others 
curious, and others of great historical interest and 
value. 

Collections of door hinges, locks, clocks, latches, 
hats, canes, knives, cutlery, and in fact any utensil, 
weapon, instrument, or device used or made by 
man may be considered worthy of the making. 
Even if you are interested in but one class or group 
of such objects keep any others which you may run 
across, for some time you may find another collector 
who will be glad to secure the things you don't want 
in exchange for the things in which you are inter- 
ested. Whatever you collect, collect in earnest, 
and aim to have the very best collection possible. 
Study your specimens and learn all you can about 
their history, use, origin, and manufacture. Make 
your collections systematic, complete, and educa- 
tional and if you do this it matters very little what 
you collect. 



N 



CHAPTER XII 

STAMPS, COINS, POSTCARDS, ETC. 

EARLY every boy has collected stamps at one 
time or another. Some have accumulated 
large numbers of stamps, and then tiring of them, 
have thrown them aside, while others have con- 
tinued until now they own large and really valuable 
collections, for stamp collections— even if made by 
boys— are frequently worth many hundred dollars. 
At one time stamp collecting was considered a 
youthful fad and was hardly taken seriously; but 
nowadays there are enormous collections worth 
veritable fortunes and even single stamps are some- 
times valued at several thousand dollars each. 

Of course the boy collector cannot expect to se- 
cure specimens of these very rare and valuable 
stamps, for many of them are represented by a 
single specimen, or a very few specimens, and no 
others are in existence. But there are a great 
many very rare stamps which boys are liable to find 

267 



268 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

and even a collection of the commoner stamps, if 
well and carefully made, may be very interesting, 
educational, and valuable. Single specimens of 
rare stamps are not of as much importance in 
the ordinary collection as perfect sets and series 
of commoner varieties and specimens of the stamps 
of many countries. Very rare stamps, stamps in 
sheets, series of plate numbers, and similar special- 
ties are better suited to advanced collectors with 
plenty of money to spend than to boys or beginners 
and from an educational point of view they are of 
comparatively little value. Many collectors con- 
fine themselves to one special country, or to a few 
countries, and while this is all very well for ad- 
vanced collectors your aim should be to secure the 
stamps of as many different countries as possible. 
Of course any one can go to a stamp dealer and buy 
stamps, but this is not true collecting and the pur- 
chase of stamps should be confined to specimens 
which you require to fill gaps in sets or for dupli- 
cates to exchange with other collectors. When you 
first start collecting, however, it is a good plan to 
buy a number of cheap packets of assorted or mixed 
stamps, for among these you will be able to find 
enough to fill many spaces in your album and with 



STAMPS, COINS, POSTCARDS, ETC. 269 

this start you will find a greater interest and in- 
centive in filling out the gaps and building up the col- 
lection. The first thing to obtain is an album and 
any of the standard albums, such as Scott's will 
answer. Don't start in by sticking your stamps in 
a blank-book or old ledger. Sooner or later you 
will have to transfer them to a proper album and it 
never does a stamp any good to pull it from one 
place and fasten it in another and the less you 
handle and transfer your specimens the better. 
You should also secure a good stamp catalogue, 
for you will often require it to identify your speci- 
mens and it will also serve as a guide to the rela- 
tive value and rarity of the various stamps. When 
you first begin collecting you will progress much 
more rapidly than after you have been collecting 
a few months. For a short time nearly every stamp 
you obtain will be new to your collection, but you 
must remember that each specimen you place in 
your album makes one less for you to obtain and 
therefore don't become discouraged when you find 
it is difficult to secure stamps which your album 
does not already contain. Don't throw away or re- 
fuse a stamp that is injured, torn or badly can- 
celled until you secure a better one. A very 



270 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

poor stamp is better than none at all, even if it has 
no monetary value whatever. Keep your eyes open 
for better specimens to replace those that are poor 
and in time your collection will contain none but 
perfect specimens. Never cut a stamp from the 
envelope or paper upon which it is placed, but soak 
it off in water. A stamp is of little value if the 
perforations around the edges have been cut or torn 
away and many varieties of stamps are classified 
by the number of these notches. Don't consider 
a stamp as a duplicate until you are absolutely sure 
that it is not different in some minor detail from the 
specimens it resembles. Many stamps appear iden- 
tical at first glance and yet one may be very common 
and the other extremely rare. Aside from the 
number of perforations there are watermarks, dies, 
shades, papers, and many other variations in stamps 
which bear the same color, value, and design. 
These minor differences are likely to be overlooked 
by beginners and boys, but to the advanced collector 
and expert they are of the utmost importance. 

The stamps issued by a certain country one year 
may be of the same color, design, and values as 
those of another year and yet one issue may be very 
common indeed and the other issue may be exces- 




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STAMPS, COINS, POSTCARDS, ETC. 271 

sively rare and valuable. The only way in which 
many of these issues can be distinguished is by 
means of the paper on which they are printed, the 
number of perforations on the edges, the shades of 
the colors, little details of the dies or plates with 
which they are printed or the watermarks of the 
paper from which the stamps are made. Every 
stamp album and catalogue lists these little differ- 
ences and the boy collector will find it very interest- 
ing and pleasurable work to search for the hidden 
marks and characteristics which determine the is- 
sues of his specimens. Water marks may be dis- 
covered by soaking the stamps in gasolene and plac- 
ing them, back-side-up, on a dark background. 
Perforations may be measured by gages, which 
are furnished by dealers in stamps; shades may 
be identified by comparison with color-charts and 
the various dies and papers are described in the 
catalogues. Stamps with and without perfora- 
tions should be considered as distinct varieties; 
but of course this doesn't mean that a stamp 
from which the perforations have been cut is 
different from one in which they remain in- 
tact ; it only applies to stamps which are made with 
or without the perforations. Thus, the ordinary 



272 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

two cent United States stamps are perforated, but 
many of those made for vending machines are not 
perforated. Sometimes tiny pin-holes, little longi- 
tudinal cuts, or similar methods of separating the 
stamps are used instead of perforations and each of 
these makes the stamp which bears it a distinct 
variety from similar stamps made in a different 
manner. 

Many collectors strive to obtain unused stamps 
and while these are very much prettier and look 
better than used stamps, yet cancelled specimens 
are often better for collections than those which 
have never been used. There are thousands of 
counterfeit stamps, reprints, and forgeries in ex- 
istence and the amateur is very likely to have these 
foisted upon him when he collects unused stamps. 
Cancelled stamps are far more likely to be genuine 
and many of the rarer issues are far more valuable 
in a used than in an unused state. The lighter a 
stamp is cancelled the better and whenever you se- 
cure a lightly cancelled duplicate, substitute it for 
the more heavily cancelled specimen in your album. 
Be careful not to confuse surcharges and precan- 
cellations with the ordinary cancellations on stamps. 
Surcharges are printed across stamps by the post- 






STAMPS, COINS, POSTCARDS, ETC. 273 

office authorities and in many instances surcharged 
stamps are far rarer and more valuable than those 
of the same issue without the printed numbers or 
words across them. 

Sometimes a post-office is short of a certain stamp 
and those of another issue are used with a different 
valuation printed in ink across their faces. At 
other times one country uses the stamps of another 
with a surcharge printed across them, while still 
other countries use their home stamps for their 
colonies and surcharge the name of the colony 
across the stamps. At the present time many of 
the European countries are using surcharged stamps 
and these are in great demand, for when the great 
war is over these stamps will no longer be used and 
will become very rare. Precancelled stamps bear 
the name of the post-office printed across them and 
you can find United States stamps precancelled with 
"New York," "Boston," "St. Louis," and many 
other towns and cities. These should all be saved 
and properly arranged in the album. Sometimes too 
you may find freak stamps or errors. These may be 
stamps in which the wrong colors are used, stamps 
in which the center is upside down or inverted, and 
stamps which are printed in the color of one issue 



274 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

and the value of another. All these should be col- 
lected and saved for they are always rare. A few 
may now and then slip past the inspection by the 
officials and get into circulation, but as soon as they 
are detected no more will be issued and those on 
hand will be withdrawn and hence the few that 
have gone forth will be all that can ever be secured. 
At times stamps are halved or quartered by the 
post-office officials instead of being surcharged. 
Such stamps, if unused, have no particular value, 
but if cancelled, and more especially if upon the 
original envelopes, they are very interesting and 
are sometimes very rare. If you ever happen to be 
at any place where cut stamps are being used don't 
fail to secure all you can on the original envelopes. 
Once, when I was in the Danish West Indies, I 
found one of the post-offices using diagonally cut 
stamps and I immediately purchased all I could ob- 
tain, stuck them on envelopes addressed to myself, 
mailed them, and secured a fine collection of the 
cancelled, cut stamps on the envelopes before my 
steamer sailed. 

If you obtain a rare or unusual stamp upon the 
original envelope always preserve the envelope and 
stamp entire ; such specimens always have a greater 



STAMPS, COINS, POSTCARDS, ETC. 275 

interest and value than the stamp by itself ; but this 
does not apply to the common every-day varieties. 
Many collectors pay no attention to envelope 
stamps, newspaper wrappers, or postcard stamps, 
but for the boy collector these are just as desirable 
as any other stamps and should be preserved. En- 
velope stamps may be kept with the envelopes en- 
tire, but unless they are scarce or rare issues this is 
hardly worth while, as they occupy a great deal of 
space. For ordinary purposes the envelope should 
be cut with a good-sized square of paper surround- 
ing the stamp; never trim it oval or round close to 
the stamp's outline. 

Whenever you find two or more stamps which 
have not been torn apart at the perforations pre- 
serve them without separating them. Many col- 
lectors prize these "pairs" or parts of sheets far 
more than stamps which have been detached and 
even if you prefer single stamps for your own col- 
lection you can often trade the pairs to advantage. 

Some collectors even go so far as to collect en- 
tire sheets of stamps as they come from the press 
and others are enthusiastic over plate-numbers, or 
corner stamps, on which two edges of the sheet 
shows. These fads are all very well for those who 



276 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

have so many stamps in their albums that sheets 
and similar specialties offer the only field for add- 
ing to their collections, but for practical purposes 
or for boys' collections they are of no particular in- 
terest or value. If, however, you secure a sheet of 
rare or unusual stamps, by all means keep it intact 
— it may be worth many times the aggregate value 
of the separate stamps it comprises. It is the same 
way with stamps bearing plate-numbers ; keep these 
whenever you can for trading purposes, unless you 
want to commence the endless work of collecting 
series of plate-numbers yourself. If you have two 
or more stamps of the same sort, retain the most 
perfect one for your album ; examine them for per- 
fect perforations, light cancellation, freedom from 
tears, breaks, or imperfections and also give atten- 
tion to the centering of the design. Stamps in two 
or more colors have the central pattern or "medal- 
lion" printed separately from the rest of the design 
and quite frequently these do not fit accurately into 
the spaces made for them. Sometimes the medal- 
lion may be far to one side or too far up or down 
on the stamp and such specimens are often rare and 
worth keeping ; but if the design is only slightly out 
of position it detracts from the value and perfec- 



STAMPS, COINS, POSTCARDS, ETC. 277 

tion of the stamp and the specimen with the most 
perfectly centered design should be retained. 

Never paste, glue, or stick stamps into an album 
or onto a sheet of paper, but mount them on regular 
stamp-hinges which may be purchased very cheaply 
from dealers. Many a rare stamp has been ruined 
by pasting it in an album. 

You may often hear of stamps with "original 
gum" and in many cases these are listed at far 
higher prices than those which have been soaked off 
in water. These are no better for your collection 
than those which have been used and have no 
original gum left on, but as other collectors may 
prefer them you will do well to keep any stamps 
with the original gum for exchanging. 

Never throw away, give away, or exchange all 
of your duplicates of any stamp ; you never can tell 
how soon a common stamp may become very rare. 
The stamps of Belgium, which were once so com- 
mon that many collectors avoided them, are now in 
great demand owing to the war in Europe and 
many of the issues, which were formerly worth 
nothing, may be worth a great deal of money before 
the war is over. Many a collector has spent hours 
of vain regret thinking how, in the past, he has dis- 



278 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

carded or given away stamps which are now prized 
rarities. It's far wiser to keep a good number of 
duplicates of common stamps for future develop- 
ments than to find yourself short when the stamps 
do become scarce. 

In classifying and arranging your collection you 
will have to depend very largely upon the cata- 
logues and albums, but before you do this you must 
obtain the stamps themselves. When you first start 
collecting you will find it a good plan to purchase 
a few packages of mixed stamps as I have already 
mentioned. Then ask your parents, relatives, and 
friends to save any stamps they can find on old 
letters, as well as any they receive. Sometimes 
you'll find a veritable treasure-trove among the old 
letters stored away in your own home, but as a rule 
you'll have to go farther afield for your specimens. 
If your father has friends who are importers or have 
correspondents in other countries wheedle him into 
asking them for stamps. The old saying that 
"All's fair in love or war" might be applied very 
aptly to stamp-collecting, for if you expect to se- 
cure stamps you must be prepared to leave no stone 
unturned to obtain them. I don't mean by this 
that you must make a nuisance of. yourself, but 



STAMPS, COINS, POSTCARDS, ETC. 279 

don't be afraid to ask any one and every one for 
stamps. If they collect themselves they'll no doubt 
be willing to give you all the duplicates they re- 
ceive or they'll exchange specimens with you; and 
if they don't collect they'll probably be gracious 
enough to save any stamps they receive. At any 
rate it will do no harm to ask and you may be well 
rewarded. Visit the offices of the various steam- 
ship lines — usually you can coax some office boy or 
clerk into gathering stamps for you and many of 
these will be of high values which you would never 
obtain from ordinary letters. If you can get ac- 
quainted with the employees of the foreign con- 
sulates you will also be able to secure many good 
specimens. Sailors, officers, and captains of steam- 
ers and sailing vessels often have quantities of for- 
eign stamps and if you want unused sets, the ships' 
officers will usually be willing to purchase them for 
you at the various ports they visit. Now and then 
you may obtain a regular windfall from some un- 
expected source and the stamp collector must ever 
keep on the alert and must develop the true col- 
lector's instinct for finding specimens if he expects 
to be successful. Old stores, old factories, old 
offices, and old houses often contain files and pack- 



280 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

ages of old letters, bills, receipts, etc., with the 
stamps still intact and if you can secure permission 
to look through these you will find many rare speci- 
mens. Although dealers and collectors have gone 
over nearly every country, searching here, there, 
and everywhere for stamps, yet there are plenty 
of rarities still unfound and hidden away and 
you've just as good a chance to find these as has any 
one else. If you spend your summers in the coun- 
try visit all the old farmhouses and country stores 
and poke about in all the old closets, garrets, and 
lumber-rooms. In some old hair-covered trunk, 
some moth-eaten carpet-bag, or some forgotten 
book you may find untold riches in stamps. The 
annals of stamp collecting are filled with stories of 
such finds and in many instances the lucky finder has 
reaped a small fortune from his discovery. When 
I was a boy a friend and myself, while poking about 
in an old, discarded desk, discovered a bundle con- 
taining dozens of unused newspaper wrappers and 
many sheets of unused stamps of the issues of the 
early sixties. They had slipped down behind the 
drawer and had lodged on a narrow ledge of wood 
where they had remained undetected for years. If 
you run across old furniture don't fail to pull out 



STAMPS, COINS, POSTCARDS, ETC. 281 

the drawers, open the doors, examine the uphol- 
stery, and search every nook and crevice for mis- 
laid stamps. If you have any old books within 
reach look them over carefully. Our ancestors had 
a habit of slipping stamps, as well as letters, be- 
tween the pages of their books and I've found many 
rare specimens in such places. One of my friends, 
who collected insects, once received a very large 
collection of butterflies and moths from South 
Africa. I happened to visit him as he was exam- 
ining his specimens and noticed that the insects 
were all preserved in corners cut from envelopes. 
An investigation followed and I went home with a 
pocketful of old Natal and Cape of Good Hope 
issues with several of the prized triangular stamps 
among them. 

At another time, while traveling in the West In- 
dies, the steamer called unexpectedly at a little out- 
of-the-way port where the regular ships never 
stopped. It was late in the evening when we ar- 
rived and we were told the vessel would sail within 
two hours. As soon as I landed at the little dock I 
asked the negro boys who surrounded us to run 
about the tiny port and bring me all the old stamps 
they could find and promised to pay them for all 



282 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

they secured. The prospect of a few pennies or 
shillings sent them scampering in every direction 
and each tried to outdo his fellows. In half an 
hour they began to return and before the roar of 
the ship's whistle warned us that we must leave 
my pockets were bulging with letters, papers, old 
bills and loose stamps. I had no time to look them 
over, or even to glance at them, and hurriedly pay- 
ing the boys I boarded the steamer. Of course a 
great many of the stamps I found in this accumula- 
tion were common, injured, or of no value, but 
among the lot were numbers of the old Virgin 
Island stamps, some very rare surcharges, several 
errors, some cut stamps on the original envelopes 
and a good assortment of revenue stamps used for 
postage. I was not collecting for myself, but for 
a dealer, and the expenditure of a few shillings and 
an hour's time netted me something over one hun- 
dred dollars. I mention this as an example of how 
well it pays stamp collectors to be ready to take ad- 
vantage of every opportunity which presents itself. 
The strangest experience I ever had with stamps 
was in Colon, a few years after the great fire. I 
was dining at a tiny restaurant and casually en- 
quired of the Spanish proprietor if he had any old 



STAMPS, COINS, POSTCARDS, ETC 283 

stamps. He led the way to a rear room, dragged a 
big iron-bound chest from beneath a bed and threw 
back the lid. Imagine my surprise at finding the 
big chest filled to overflowing with thousands of 
stamps from every quarter of the globe! The 
bulk of them were from the South American coun- 
tries and the stamps of Colombia were more nu- 
merous than any others. It would have taken 
months to have assorted that collection, but even at 
a glance numerous rarities were evident. I tried 
to buy the entire chest, but the old fellow refused to 
sell. I wanted to pick out some specimens and buy 
them and he wouldn't consent to it. Then he of- 
fered to make me a present of a handful that he 
scooped up and I was compelled to be satisfied with 
that. He had been saving stamps in this odd fash- 
ion for years and time and again I've wondered 
what finally became of the vast hoard he had ac- 
cumulated. 

Aside from their interest as specimens, stamps 
possess a great educational value and by studying 
your collection you can learn a great deal which you 
would never learn in any other way. You will be- 
come familiar with the coats of arms, flags, and 
emblems of the various countries. You will soon 



284 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

remember the names of their rulers and whether 
they are monarchies, republics, or dependencies of 
other nations, and you'll have to learn their mone- 
tary systems, standards of currency, and their 
equivalents in our own money. You'll find that 
some countries are independent, some are colonies, 
some are protectorates, and that some are occupied 
and controlled by two or more nations, and you'll 
discover a great deal about the histories of many 
lands. 

Some stamps bear portraits of rulers, patriots, 
and prominent men and these are usually excellent 
likenesses and will give you a very good idea of the 
appearance of the great men of other lands. Other 
stamps have designs showing the native birds, 
beasts, and plants and from these you can find out 
much about the strange fauna and flora of foreign 
countries. Still other stamps show the industries 
and commerce of the people and others bear pic- 
tures of notable buildings and monuments or bits of 
scenery, such as great waterfalls, mountains, vol- 
canoes, or prehistoric ruins. All of these are in- 
structive and if you desire you may make separate 
collections of stamps arranged so as to illustrate all 
these things. From a collection of stamps you may 



STAMPS, COINS, POSTCARDS, ETC. 285 

easily obtain series showing the greatest and most 
important buildings in the world, the most notable 
men, the rulers of many lands, their commerce, in- 
dustries and manufactures, their products and re- 
sources, the costumes and habits of the people, and 
a fairly complete menagerie of the birds and ani- 
mals of the globe. 

Coins 

Somehow stamps and coins always seem to go 
together. Stamp dealers are usually coin dealers 
and a great many stamp collectors also collect coins 
and vice versa. Personally I never could see any 
good reason for collecting coins — except in banks — 
but there is no reason why any boy should not col- 
lect coins if he wants to. If you do collect coins 
don't get too deeply interested or strive to make 
your collection too complete. Coins have a definite 
value as currency, aside from their value as speci- 
mens, and unlike stamps and other things current 
coins are worth their face value. 

For these reasons you cannot obtain modern 
coins, which are in circulation, without paying for 
them and to secure a good collection of current 
coins means a large outlay of money. It's a dif- 



286 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

ferent matter with old coins, however, and I advise 
any boy who wishes to collect coins to confine him- 
self to old coins, or to those of small denominations. 
A collection of copper cents and half-cents of the 
United States is interesting and a large series of 
specimens may easily be obtained. Many foreign 
countries have issued vast numbers of coins of low 
values which may be collected and really old coins 
of any country are always suitable for collections. 
Coins require less care than stamps, for they are 
not easily injured; but the same care should be used 
in obtaining perfect specimens, in discriminating 
between the minor varieties, and in making your 
series as complete as possible. You can scarcely 
expect your friends to save up coins for you, but if 
they know you are collecting they'll frequently put 
aside odd or old coins that they receive. As in the 
case of many other objects you will often find good 
specimens of coins in junk shops, at pawnbrokers', 
and in antique stores. Many of these will be com- 
mon and of little value but now and then a cor- 
roded, illegible coin will turn out to be a real rarity. 
In old houses, in garrets, in antique furniture and 
old wallets you will sometimes find rare coins and 
once in a while an ancient coin, or a number of 



STAMPS, COINS, POSTCARDS, ETC. 287 

coins will be dug up from its hiding place or dis- 
closed when an old building is demolished. Coin 
collectors are not as numerous as stamp collectors 
and the world has not been searched as carefully 
for coins as for stamps and in many out-of-the-way 
places you may still obtain quantities of interest- 
ing old coins in splendid condition. Don't make 
the mistake of thinking that age alone gives a coin 
its value. There are plenty of old Roman, Greek, 
and other ancient coins which are worth but a few 
cents each, while certain coins of the United States 
are valued by hundreds or thousands of dollars. 
The rarity of a coin depends upon the number of 
its kind, not upon its age, but many old coins are 
of course very valuable. Even if a coin is not of 
great value its age may make it interesting and 
associations — historical and otherwise — may make 
it still more desirable. In Latin America and the 
Orient there are thousands of coins in daily use 
which were coined in the days of the buccaneers 
and pirates. Some of these are great golden Span- 
ish "Onzas," others are doubloons, and others are 
the silver "pieces of eight" which are always asso- 
ciated with the freebooters of the Spanish Main. 
These all pass at their face value and are not con- 



288 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

sidered rarities, but their associations make them 
extremely interesting to the boy collector. No 
doubt many of these old Spanish coins once jingled 
in the pockets of Morgan, Lafitte, Drake, and other 
piratical characters. Many of them helped to pay 
the ransoms of towns and cities. Imagine the 
thrilling tales that these old pieces of silver and 
gold could relate, if they could only speak; the 
battles they have witnessed, the cruelties and 
butcheries which have been perpetrated to win 
them; the bloodshed which they have caused, and 
the hilarious times and unspeakable orgies which 
they have been the means of furnishing since the 
days when they first were struck in the mints of 
Spain. But if you collect coins, strive to make 
your collection educational as well as interesting. 
Do not confine yourself to the minted metal coins of 
civilized lands, but also collect the currency of 
strange and savage races. The cowry shells of the 
East Indies are just as much "coins" to the natives 
as our dollars and cents are to us. The Indians 
used "wampum," tusk-shells, and beads. Many of 
the South and Central American tribes still barter 
with bottles, buttons, and teeth for currency and 
in many other corners of the globe similar strange 



STAMPS, COINS, POSTCARDS, ETC 289 

forms of money may be founded. All these add 
to the interest and value of the coin collection and 
should be included in it. 

Picture Post-cards 

I have already mentioned post-cards when speak- 
ing of the stamp collection, but these should not be 
confused with the popular picture post-cards which 
are issued without stamps by private firms or in- 
dividuals. Many people "collect" picture post- 
cards, just as they "collect" Christmas and New 
Year's cards, valentines, and photographs of their 
friends and acquaintances. Such so-called collec- 
tions have little interest and no real value, for they 
include impossible views, comic pictures, foolish 
mottos, and all sorts of trash. For this reason 
picture post-cards have fallen into disrepute, but 
as a matter of fact certain picture post-cards are 
well worth collecting and are both instructive and 
interesting. Many picture post-cards bear beauti- 
ful photographs of scenery; others show monu- 
ments, buildings, and similar objects, while still 
others picture the native people at their occupa- 
tions, industries, and in their home life. A collec- 
tion of such cards can be made very interesting and 



290 THE BOY COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK 

the collector can learn a vast amount about the 
various countries and places from which the cards 
come. Whenever you visit any city or country 
secure a series of the cards with good pictures of 
typical scenery, prominent monuments or buildings, 
or of the people at work and play. Whenever a 
relative or friend goes abroad or travels anywhere 
ask him, or her, to send cards from the various 
places visited, and make it plain that the cards you 
want are those with good pictures of the scenery, 
buildings, and people. Exchange cards whenever 
you can and by these means you will be able to form 
a collection which will surprise both yourself and 
your friends and will be far more interesting than 
many collections of more valuable specimens. The 
real object of every collection should be to teach 
something; the ultimate aim of every collector 
should be to acquire knowledge. If this is accom- 
plished it doesn't matter what you collect, and while 
there may be "sermons in stones" there is also a 
liberal education in a good collection of picture 
post-cards. 

THE END 

VAIL-BALLOU CO., BINGHAMTON AND NEW YORK 



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BINDERY INC. 

NOV 92 



N. MANCHESTER, 
INDIANA 469 











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